GV 835 
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1917 
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Copyright^ Mn 

CQE2RIGHT DEPOSITS 



Practical Motor Boat 

Handling, Seamanship 

and Piloting 



A handbook containing information which every motor 

boatman should know. Especially prepared for the 

man who takes pride in handling his own boat and 

getting the greatest enjoyment out of cruising. 

Adapted for the yachtsman interested in 

fitting himself to be of service to his 

Government in time of war 



By 

CHARLES F. CHAPMAN, M.E. 

Editor of MoToR BoatinG 



Published by 

MoToR BoatinG 

119 W. 40TH STREET, NEW YORK 






Copyright, 1917 

By International Magazine Co. 

New York 



/ 
'APR -9 1317 

©CI. A 4 6023 9 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I — Navigation Laws 5-6 

II — Meeting and Passing 7-19 

III — Lights for all Classes of Boats 20-35 

IV — Buoys of the Various Types. ..... 36-42 

V — Government Navigation Lights. . . . 43-50 

VI — Equipment Required by Law 51-52 

VII — The Compass 53-57 

VIII — Compass Errors 58-67 

IX — The Chart 68-70 

X — Publications and Nautical Instruments 71-83 

XI — Piloting . . 84-94 

XII — Navigating in Fog 95-97 

XIII— Flags and Colors 98-104 

XIV — Yachting Etiquette 105-106 

XV — Signaling 107-114 

XVI- — Miscellaneous Signals 115-118 

XVII — Boat Handling Under Various Sea 

Conditions 119-125 

XVIII — Steering 126-130 

XIX — Boat Equipment, Provisions and Sup- 
plies 131-134 

XX — Suggestions for Meals 135-136 

XXI — Navy Signaling . . 137-144 



CHAPTER I 
Navigation Laws 

NAVIGATION and shipping on the various waters of the 
globe, whether it be of a 'commercial or recreational char- 
acter, is governed by certain regulations much in the same 
way as traffic on land is regulated. Instead of coming under the 
jurisdiction of the various States, as is the case on land, 
navigation and traffic on water comes under the jurisdiction 
of the Federal Government, except on inland waterways 
which are entirely within the limits of one State. 

Federal jurisdiction is divided into three principal classes, 
which may be referred to as the International, the Inland, 
and the Pilot Rules. 

International Rules 

The International Rules govern navigation on waters which 
do not come within the jurisdiction of any particular country; 
for example, navigation on the high seas beyond what is 
technically known as the three-mile limit comes under the 
jurisdiction of the International Rules. These rules were 
drawn up at a conference of a number of the maritime nations 
of the world held about 1890. The various nations which were 
represented by delegates at this conference agreed to certain 
uniform and standard regulations, which should govern the 
ships of their nations on the high seas. They adopted and 
agreed to abide by the regulations which have been in force 
since this conference. 

Inland Rules 

Navigation on the waterways of the United States, which 
are tributary to the high seas, or are not within the confines 
of a particular State, are governed by regulations adopted by 
the Congress of the United States. These regulations are 
known as the Inland Rules, of which there are several sets 
applying to inland waters in particular localities. 

Pilot Rules 

Congress has given power to the Board of Supervising 
Inspectors to enact laws governing the navigation of boats 
on the inland waters of the United States, which must not be 

5 



6 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 

contrary or opposed to the inland laws. These are known as 
the Pilot Rules. 

The Pilot Rules vary somewhat for the different localities, 
and are published by the Department of Commerce in book 
form entitled "Pilot Rules for Certain Inland Waters of the 
Atlantic and Pacific Coasts, and the Gulf of Mexico," as is 
well known by every motor boatman. 

Motor Boat Rules 

Included in the book of Pilot Rules is the Motor Boat Act 
of 1910, which governs the rules for lights, equipment, etc., 
to be carried on boats of less than 65 feet in length, which 
are technically known as motor boats. In other words, a 
motor boat is any vessel operated by machinery that is less 
than 65 feet in length, other than tugboats propelled by steam. 

The Board of Supervising Inspectors, in accordance with 
the power granted it by Congress, has the right to make cer- 
tain regulations of a local nature arising from conditions in 
the particular locality to which they refer, such as speed regu- 
lations, signals for vessels requiring the assistance of police 
or fire boats, rules referring to the operation and mooring of 
dredges, marking of wrecks, etc. 

War Department 

The War Department is entrusted to certain regulations 
related in a certain way to navigation, such as the improvement 
of waterways and channels, the establishment of pier head 
lines, certain dredging operations, bridge regulations, etc. 
Congress has conceded certain rights to be within what is 
known as the police power of the respective States. 

Fortunately, the International, Inland, and Pilot Rules are 
practically identical in their wording and intention, differing 
only in the minutest details, so that from the standpoint of 
the motor boatman there is no need to consider that there 
exists more than one set of rules for his guidance. 



CHAPTER II 
Meeting and Passing 

THE major portion of the navigation laws naturally refer 
to boats under way. A boat is considered to be under 
way, according to law, when she is not at anchor, 
aground, or made fast to the shore. 

Special Circumstances When Risk of Collision Exists 

The fundamental basis of the laws governing right of way 
between two boats on different courses provides that one shall 
have the right of way and must hold her course and speed, 
while it shall be the duty of the other to give way or keep 
clear of the boat having the right of way. However, the law 
specifically states that in obeying and construing the rules of 
the road at sea, due regard must be had for all dangers of 
navigation and collision, and to any special circumstance 
which may render a departure from the rules necessary in 
order to avoid immediate danger. The rules also specifically 
state that when for any reason whatsoever a vessel which has 
the right of way finds herself in such a position that an 
accident or collision cannot be avoided alone bv the boat 
which is supposed to give way, then the boat having the right 
of way must do everything within her power to prevent a 
collision. This rule practically means that to a greater or less 
degree the responsibility for a collision is placed upon both 
boats. 

Duty in Case of Accident 

Should an accident or collision occur, it is the dutv of the 
person (or persons) in charge of each boat to stand by the 
other until he has ascertained that she is in no need of further 
assistance, and it is his duty to render to the other boat, her 
crew, and her passengers such assistance as may be practical 
and necessary in order to save them from any danger caused 
by the collision — so far as he can do so, that is, without 
danger to his own boat, crew, or passengers. He must also 
give to the person in charge of the other boat the name of his 
own craft, and the port to which she belongs. 

Precautionary Measures 

Certain whistle signals are provided by law, to be given by 
one boat in order to indicate to the other her course and 

7 



8 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 

action. Although not required by law, it is essential, that the 
boats take other action than the mere giving and answering 
of whistle signals. It is a well-known fact that whistle signals 
are of little value on a motor boat where the noise from 
machinery or from other causes is excessive. Very often 
whistle signals given on the kind of whistle which exists on 
many motor boats to-day cannot be heard for any appreciable 
distance. It is far better that the course which one intends 
to take should be indicated by swinging the boat's bow de- 
cidedly in that direction. This action can 'be seen by the 
person in charge of the other boat, and in many cases it is 
decidedly more convincing than an exchange of whistle sig- 
nals. It is essential that in passing another boat you give 
it as wide a berth as possible. Nothing has ever been gained 
by passing close to, and much has been lost. 

When to Give Whistle Signals 

Whistle signals should only be given when boats are ac- 
tually in sight of one another in the day-time, or when the 
lights are visible at night, when danger of collision exists. 
Whistle signals should never be given or exchanged when 
these conditions do not exist. They must never be used under 
any circumstances in the fog or when the exact location of a 
vessel cannot be accurately determined. 

The Helm 

In the various navigation rules, as well as in many situa- 
tions which one meets aboard a motor boat, the helm is 
often referred to. It must be remembered that the boat's 
helm is not her wheel or her rudder. When the order is 
given to port one's helm, action should be taken so that the 
boat's bow will swing to starboard. When a starboard helm 
is referred to, the boat's bow must be swung to port. In 
other words, the helm more nearly applies to the tiller of the 
old sailing days than to the wheel or the rudder. Wheels as 
they are rigged to-day may turn in the direction in which the 
boat's bow is swung, or in the opposite direction. Thus it 
will be seen that the term helm cannot refer to the wheel. 

The Three Situations 

In the case of two boats approaching each other, we find 
three cases called meeting head-on, overtaking, and crossing, 
respectively. The first two situations mentioned are clearly 
defined, and the third must be assumed to exist when the 
boats are not meeting head-on, or in an overtaking position. 



MEETING AND PASSING 9 

Boats are assumed to be meeting head-on when their masts 
can be seen in line, or nearly so. (Nearly so, has been ruled 
to mean one-half a point either side of dead ahead.) They 
are assumed to be in an overtaking position when one boat 
is approaching the course of another from more than two 
points abaft the beam of the leading boat, or when at night 
the side lights if correctly placed cannot be seen. In all 
other situations where the courses intersect, either at right 




MO -HEAP ON SITUATION 
CROSSING SITUATION 
OT -OVERTAKING SITUATION 



Fig. 1A. The three situations — boats meeting head-on, overtaking, 
and crossing. Relative to the black boat, the boats marked H O 
are in the head-on situation; those marked O T are overtaking; 
and the boats marked C are in a crossing position 

angles or obliquely, they are assumed to be crossing. (See 
Fig. 1A.) 
Meaning of Points 

To get a clearer understanding of the meanings of the 
various terms used on shipboard as well ,as the meaning 
of head-on, overtaking and crossing, Fig. 1 may prove of 
value. It will be noticed that a circle circumscribed around 
the boat is divided into 32 equal parts, known as points, a 
particular name being given to each one of these divisions. 
Any object located on a line extended from the center of the 
boat and passing through its bow is said to be dead ahead. 



10 



PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 



The Bearings 
on the Port Sii 
. Are Designate i 
In the Same "Way 



On Starboard Beam 



An object on the line which is drawn on the first 1/32 of the 
circumference to the right is said to bear one point on the 
starboard bow. When it is on the second line as shown, it 
is said to bear two points on the starboard bow. If on the 
third line an object bears three points on the starboard bow. 
An object on the 
next line, which is 
45 degrees or \i 
the way around, is 
said to bear four 
points, or broad on 
the starboard bow. 

As we continue 
around to the right, 
the next bearing 
will be called three 
points forward of 
the starboard 
beam ; the next two 
points forward of 
the starboard 
beam ; and the next 
one point forward 
of the starboard 
beam. An obiect on 
the starboard side 
on a line drawn at 
right angles to the 
fore and aft line 
of the boat is said 
to be on the star- 
board beam. 

In a similar way 
the points aft of the 
starboard beam are 
called one point 
abaft the starboard 
beam ; two points 
abaft the starboard 
beam, and three 
points abaft the 

starboard beam. The next point is called four points or broad 
on the starboard quarter. The next, three points on the star- 
board quarter ; two points on the starboard quarter and one point 




: ^&, 



9£am 



Fig:. 1. 



Names and location of various 
points and bearings 



MEETING AND PASSING 



11 



on the starboard quarter. An object on the next line, which 
is a line extended from the bow and passing through the 
center of the ship is said to be astern. The bearings on the 
port side are designated in a similar way. 

From the diagram it will be seen that we have three prin- 
cipal designations used in referring to different parts of the 
boat, namely its bozv, which extends from dead ahead through 
four points to starboard or port; the beam of the boat, which 
extends through eight points on either side ; and the boat's 
quarter, which extends four points forward of astern on each 
side. 

Right of Way Diagram 

In determining which of two boats whose courses are ap- 
proaching each other has the right of way, Fig. 2 will be of 
aid. If the diagram of the boat is assumed to be your ship, 




Fig. 2. Boats approaching: your course within the danger zone have 
the right of way over your boat when danger of collision exists 

then you would have the right of way over every boat ap- 
proaching your course, with the exception of those boats 
which were approaching you in the shaded section marked 
"Danger Zone." Boats in the danger zone approaching your 
course would have the right of way over you, and it would 
be your duty to keep clear of such 'boats. In all other cases 
where boats were approaching your course in the clear sec- 
tion, your craft would have the right of way, and the obliga- 
tion to keep clear would fall upon the other boat. In other 
words, the danger zone extends from dead ahead, represented 
by the line OY, around to two points abaft the starboard 



12 



PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 



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MEETING AND PASSING 13 

beam, which is represented by the line OX. At night, boats 
approaching your course within the danger zone would show 
you their red light, another symbol of danger, and an indica- 
tion that you must give way. At night, boats approaching 
your course anywhere in the clear section would show you 
their green light, a signal for you to hold your course and 
speed. 

Proper Location for Steering Wheel 

Fig. 2 should bring home to you why it is preferable to 
have one's steering wheel located on the starboard side of the 
boat rather than on the port side, if one of the two locations 
must be chosen. One will realize that it is essential that the 
helmsman should have an unobstructed view of the danger 
zone, as it is boats within this zone which give him the chief 
concern. To get the clearest view of the danger zone, the 
steering wheel should naturally be located on the starboard 
side. One does not have as much concern as to what is hap- 
pening on the port side, as boats approaching your course on 
that side must give way to you. 

Meeting Head-On 

Of the various meeting and passing situations of two boats, 
meeting head-on (as shown in Fig. 3) is the simplest one. In 
such a case it is the duty of each simply to turn to the right 
exactly as two vehicles on land would do. As an indication 
that this action is to be taken, one boat should sound one 
blast on her whistle, swinging her bow at the same moment. 
When this action is understood by the other boat, she should 
reply by one blast of the whistle, also swinging ;her bow 
simultaneously. The boats will then pass port port side to 
port side. 

Courses Parallel 

When two boats are on parallel courses, but each course 
is so far to the starboard of the other that no change of 
course is necessary in order to allow the boats to clear, two 
blasts of the whistle should then be given by one boat, which 
should be acknowledged by two blasts from the other boat, 
each iholding her course and speed, and they pass clear of 
each other starboard side to starboard side. This is the only 
situation where it is allowable to use two whistles in passing. 
All other cases where two whistles are used are illegal, and 
should be avoided. 



14 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 

Overtaking 

A boat is considered to be overtaking another when she is 
approaching the course of the leading boat from more than 
two points abaft the beam of the leading boat. In such a 
situation the rights all rest with the leading boat, the over- 
taking vessel having no rights whatsoever. In a situation of 
this kind if the overtaking boat desires to pass on the star- 
board side of the leading boat, she may ask permission to do so 
by giving one blast on her whistle. If the leading boat be- 
lieves it is safe and practicable to allow the overtaking boat 
to pass on her starboard side, she will answer by one blast of 
her whistle, in which case the overtaking boat will pass to 
starboard, being careful not to interfere with the course or 
rights of the leading boat. However, should the leading boat, 
for any good reason, believe that it is undesirable to allow 
the overtaking boat to pass her on her starboard side, she 
may refuse permission by giving the danger signal, four or 
more short blasts on her whistle, in which case the overtaking 
boat has no alternative other than to stay astern. In the course 
of a short time the overtaking boat may again ask permission to 
pass the leading boat on the starboard side by giving one blast 
of her whistle, and the leading boat again has the right to exer- 
cise the prerogative that has just been explained. 

Should the overtaking boat desire to pass the leading boat 
to port, her signal would be two blasts on the whistle, which 
would be answered by two blasts by the leading boat, if she 
considered that conditions warranted the action requested 
by the overtaking boat; otherwise she would sound the danger 
signal, and proceed exactly as before. 

When doubt exists in the minds of the master of one boat 
as to whether his craft is an overtaking boat or a crossing 
boat, he must assume that he is an overtaking boat, and be 
governed accordingly. 

Crossing Courses 

Courses which are crossing, or which may be said to be 
meeting obliquely, probably form the most common situation. 
From Fig. 2, which illustrated the danger zone, it will be 
remembered that the boat, which has the other on her port bow 
is considered to have the right of way. In such a situation it 
is the privilege and duty of the boat having the right of way 
to maintain her course and speed. The boat not having the 
right of way must give way in every instance. 

The proper signal for the boat having the right of way 



MEETING AND PASSING 15 

when two courses are meeting obliquely is one blast of the 
whistle. (See Fig. 4.) This should be answered immediately 
by one blast from the other boat. The boat not having the 
right of way must then pass astern of the boat which has the 
right of way. If necessary, the vessel having to give way 
must slow down, stop, or change her course in order to allow 
the other boat to pass ahead of her. 

Assuming that no whistle signals have been previously 
given, if for any reason the boat not having the right of way 
desires to, she may ask permission to pass ahead of the right- 
of-way boat by giving two blasts on the whistle. If the right- 
of-way boat is so inclined, she may grant this permission by 
answering with two short blasts of her whistle. However, in 
granting this permission by giving two blasts of the whistle, it 
is understood by the other that she may pass ahead at her own 
risk. Such a reply does not of itself change or modify the 
statutory obligation of the giving-way boat to keep out of the 
way as before, nor does it guarantee the success of the means 
she has adopted to do so. In other words, should an accident 
occur, the responsibility will rest entirely with the boat which 
has not the right of way, even though the fault seems to lie 
entirely with the other craft. This is a situation which is very 
common on the waterways of our country. But motor craft 
should always be careful to avoid it as it is entirely illegal. 

Should the boat not having the right of way request per- 
mission to pass ahead of the other boat by giving two blasts 
of her whistle, and should the right-of-way boat not desire 
to grant this request or permission, she will sound the danger 
signal, in which case both vessels must stop, and be absolutely 
sure of the action of each other before proceeding. 

Boats Backing 

In the instance of one or more boats backing, the case is com- 
paratively simple, as the stern of the backing boat for the 
time being is considered her bow. Passing signals are ex- 
changed exactly as though the boats were proceeding ahead, 
considering for the time being that the boat's stern is her bow. 

Boats Coming Out of a Slip 

W.hen boats are backing out of slips, or away from wharfs 
or piers, the rules of the road do not apply until the boat is 
entirely clear of the slip. In other words, she has absolutely 
no rights of way until she is clear. As a boat starts backing 
out from such a landing she is supposed to give one long 
blast on her whistle. As soon as she is clear of such obstruc- 



16 



PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 



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Fig, 5. I, Crossing boats; II, Overtaking: boats; III, Boats on par- 
allel courses; IV, Meeting: in a winding- channel; Y, Backing:; 
VI, Boat coming: out of slip 



tions the regular rules of the road and rights of way apply. 
However, no craft has the right to run so close to a pier 
line that entrance or exit from slips and wharves will be 
blocked. Ferry boats and others must be given a reasonable 
amount of space for maneuvering purposes at the entrance 
to their landings. 



MEETING AND PASSING 17 

Boats on Parallel Courses 

We now come to the situation of two boats on parallel 
courses where one desires to cross ahead of the other. As 
the two boats are on parallel courses, neither has the right 
of way over the other, strictly speaking, but in many instances 
one boat desires for good reasons to change her course, and 
pass across ahead of the other boat. For example, A in Fig. 
5 III being the faster boat, desires to change her course, as in- 
dicated by the arrow, and pass across B's bow. The question 
is whether she should give one whistle to indicate this course, 
or whether two blasts will be necessary. 

There is considerable difference of opinion in the minds of 
motor boatmen as to the proper signal, as many will hold that 
this is a two-whistle situation — but such is not the case. If 
A desires to cross B's bow, she should give one blast of her 
whistle, and this should be answered by one blast from B's 
whistle, upon which B should pass astern of A. Probably the 
confusion in a situation of this kind results from the fact 
that many have learned the old rule that one whistle means 
"I am directing my course to starboard," and two whistles is 
an indication that "I am directing my course to port." In 
the case just cited, this rule does not hold good, and the 
sooner one can eliminate it from his memory the better. 
However, there is a rule which is much easier to remember 
than the old one, and it holds good in every case. 

As everyone knows, there are two terms used in expressing 
direction of a boat, namely, port and starboard. The former 
word has one syllable, and the latter two syllables. We also 
have a signal of one whistle, and a signal of two whistles. 
If one keeps in mind that one whistle always refers to the 
word of one syllable — namely, port — and two whistles always 
refers to the word of two syllables — namely, starboard — he 
will have no difficulty in any of the passing situations. 
Wherefore, one whistle always means "I am going to pass 
you on my port side," and similarly, two whistles means "I 
am going to pass you on my starboard side." 

One whistle, one syllable, port — two whistles, two syllables, 
starboard. 

Overtaking and Crossing 

In the upper left hand part of Fig. 5, the boat B in any of 
the positions marked Bl, B2 or B3 would have the right of 
way over A. and it would be the duty of A to keep clear. 
However, in the upper right hand diagram the boat A would 



18 



PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 



have the right of way over the boat B, for the simple reason 
that in the first case boat B is a crossing boat, and in the 
second instance an overtaking boat. 

Meeting in Winding Channel 

When two boats are approaching each other in a winding 
channel (See IV, Fig. 5), they must be considered as meeting 
head-on, and not as meeting obliquely. In such a case neither 
has the right of way, but it is the duty of each to swing to 
starboard after one blast of the whistle, and pass port side 
to port side. 

Rights of a Sailing Vessel 

A sailing craft (See Fig. 6) has the . right of way over a 
motor-driven craft in every instance except one. The one 
exception is when the sailing craft is in such a position as to 
be considered an overtaking boat. In such a case the motor 
boat or leading boat would have the right of way over the 
sailing vessel. In all other situations the motor craft must 
give way to the sailing vessel. 

Auxiliaries 

Boats of the type known as auxiliaries, capable of being 
operated under both sail and power, or under either alone, 




Fig. 6. Sailing 1 craft have the right of way over power vessels, except 
when the former is overtaking the power vessel from more than 
two points abaft her beam 



MEETING AND PASSING 19 

are subject to certain rules of the steamboat inspectors. In 
some cases inspectors have ruled that an auxiliary when pro- 
ceeding under sail and power would have the rights ot a 
sailing craft ; in others that she would have only those of a 
motor craft. However, at night a boat proceeding under both 
sail and power is required to carry only the lights of a sail- 
ing vessel. An auxiliary, operating under sail alone, of 
course, has the rights of a sailing vessel, and when operating 
under power alone is classed as a power vessel. 

Cross Signals 

Whistle signals given by one boat must always be answered 
by a similar whistle from the other vessel. That is, one 
whistle must always be answered by one, and two whistles 
answered by two. If for any reason the signal cannot be 
answered by a similar whistle, it must 'be answered by the 
danger signal, which is four or more short blasts of the 
whistle. It must never be answered by a cross signal; that is, 
two whistles must never be used to reply to one, nor one to 
reply to two. When the danger signal is given by either of 
two boats it is the duty of each to proceed only with the 
greatest caution, or stop and reverse if necessary. In other 
words, the danger signal is a signal that the action of one 
vessel is misunderstood by the other, and neither boat should 
proceed until the proper signals have 'been given, exchanged, 
and understood. 



CHAPTER HI 
Lights for all Classes of Boats 

IN discussing the subject of the proper Hghts for the various 
classes of vessels we should keep in mind the fundamental 
laws mentioned in the first chapter. Although on first thought 
it might appear that with three or four sets of laws (the Inter- 
national, the Inland, and the Pilot Rules) to guide us, confusion 
would result in many instances, as the laws in themselves might 
conflict, we find upon analyzing the situation that this is not the 
case, as in only a few instances are the rules themselves con- 
flicting, and then in only minor respects. Therefore, for the pur- 
pose of this general discussion, we can very readily assume that 
only one set of laws governs the proper lights to carry. 

There are many types and kinds of vessels, and it is but 
natural that the laws should provide lights so different in their 
characteristics that different types of vessels could be readily 
distinguished. In this respect the laws in most instances are 
strikingly efficient, yet they have not been made so complex 
as to become cumbersome. 

Types of Craft 

The principal division into which types of floating craft are 
divided are sea-going vessels, inland vessels, tow boats, sailing 
craft, ferry boats, barges and canal boats, scows, rafts, etc., 
and last but not least, motor boats. This subdivision of motor 
boats is further divided into three classes, depending upon the 
overall length of the motor boat. 

Fundamental Rules 

In familiarizing oneself with the lights one has to remember 
very little. The only colors used for lights are white, red and 
green, and these are arranged to show in only four different 
ways — namely, for 10, 12, 20, or 32 points around the horizon, 
the last, of course, being the light which may be seen from all 
directions. (See Fig. 7.) Red and green lights each show for 
10 points, irrespective of the type of vessel on which they may be 
used. White lights showing from ahead are invariably arranged 
to be visible for 20 or 32 points. Lights arranged to show from 
astern are invariably visible for 12 or 32 points. There are no 
other combinations than those just mentioned, so if one gets 
this fundamental fixed in his mind he will have no trouble in 
remembering how the various lights are arranged to show. 

20 



LIGHTS FOR ALL CLASSES OF BOATS 



21 



Lights for Motor Boats 

As the lights to be carried on motor boats are of the > greatest 
interest to us, we shall consider that phase of the subject first. 
As it is not practicable to photograph boats at night for the 
purpose of showing their lights, a system has been adopted 
which will better illustrate the points that are to be brought out. 
Fig. 8 makes clear the symbols that have been adopted for the 
two classes of white, the green, and the red lights, respectively. 




Fig. 7. 



Diagram showing range of visibility of lights on all types 
of boats 



As was mentioned above, motor boats for the purpose of light- 
ing are divided into three classes, according to their overall 
length. These are, Class 1, consisting of boats under 26 feet in 
length; Class 2, boats measuring 26 to 40 feet in length; and 
Class 3, boats of 40 to 65 feet in length. In only a few respects 
does the lighting system vary between the different classes, and 
so it is possible -to consider motor boats as a whole, simply men- 



22 



PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 



tioning when the system of lighting varies from one class to 
another. 

The boat shown in Fig. 8 probably falls in Class 3 ; that is, 
she has a length of somewhere between 40 and 65 feet. It will 
be noticed that on the forward part of her awning is placed a 
white light showing ahead, and directly under this her green 
starboard light, which shows from directly ahead to two points 
abaft the starboards beam, or a total of 10 points. Although this 
arrangement may be legal, it would be better to have the white 
light much nearer the bow and on a level with the green starboard 
light. The symbol used indicates that the white light at the 
stern of the boat shows completely around the horizon. This 
light is placed higher than the forward white light, which is 
proper and necessary. In other words, a white light aft show- 




rig. 8. Lights carried by a motor boat under way 



ing completely around the horizon must be higher than the 
forward light showing directly ahead. The reason for this will 
be brought out later. Too many motor boat owners make the 
mistake of hanging this after light below the awning, where it 
cannot be seen completely around the horizon, and others err 
in not placing it higher than the forward light. Obviously, there 
is a red light on the port side showing for 10 points, placed 
similarly to the green starboard light. 

Class 2 motor boats are lighted exactly like Class 3, the 
only difference being in the sizes of the lenses of the lights re- 
quired by law, and the fore and aft length of the screen used 



LIGHTS FOR ALL CLASSES OF BOATS 



23 



to shield the red and green side lights. The law requires that 
the lenses of all lights shall be of fresnel or fluted glass. 

Class 1, comprising motor boats of less than 26 feet length, 
may be lighted in the same way, or, if their owners prefer, they 
may substitute a combination red and green light in the bow in 
place of the three forward lights of Class 2 and 3. In such a 
case the starboard light must be so constructed as to show a 
green light from directly ahead to two points abaft the beam 
on the starboard side, and the port lens to show a red light over 
10 points on the port side.* 

Motor Boats Under Sail and Power 

Motor boats under sail and power carry only the red and 
green side lights, each properly screened to show over 10 points 




Fig. J>. A motor boat under sail and power carries only the colored 

side lights 

of the horizon. (See Fig. 9.) Motor boats under sail and 
power never show a white light except upon being overtaken 
by another vessel, when a white light is temporarily shown 
over the stern of the auxiliary. 

Lights for Inland Steamers 

Inland vessel's of the type shown in Fig. 10 are lighted exactly 
like boats in Classes 2 and 3 — that is, a white light forward 



*For sizes of lenses and other details, see chapter on Equipment 
Required by Law (page 52). 



24 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 




Fig. 10. Lights carried by an inland steamer 

showing over 20 points, red and green side lights each showing 
over 10 points, and a range light aft showing completely around 
the horizon. The white light, as previously mentioned, should 
be placed as near the bow as possible; the side lights placed a 
little farther aft on the same level, and the range light placed 
higher than the how light. 

Sea-Going Vessels 

Sea-going vessels differ only slightly in their lighting par- 
ticulars. (See Fig. 11.) The forward light, as usual, shows 
over 20 points, but is generally placed about halfway up on the 
foremast. The customary red and green lights are carried, 
but on sea-going vessels they must naturally be placed somewhat 
lower than the forward light. The only point of difference in 
the lighting of sea-going and other vessels consists in the 
arrangement of the after range light, which generally shows 
ahead for 20 points instead of completely around the horizon. 
This should bring to mind the situation that viewing a sea-going 




fig. 11, Lights carried by a sea-going vessel 



LIGHTS FOR ALL CLASSES OF BOATS 



25 




Fig. 13. Steam yachts are generally lighted in the same manner as 

sea-going vessels 

vessel from astern there would be no light visible. This is 
perfectly true, but the law provides that, on any type of similar 
vessel where there is no light visible from astern, an additional 
light may be carried, generally low down, visible from astern 
only, or around 12 points of the horizon. It is a fact that most 

sea-going vessels carry 

this light on their taff rail. 

Steam Yachts 

Yachts which might be 
termed sea-going are 
lighted in exactly the 
same way as sea-going 
vessels (See Fig. 12) ; 
that is a white light on 
the foremast showing 
ahead for 20 points, a 
range light on the main- 
mast showing ahead for 
20 points, and placed 
higher than the light on 
the foremast, and the 
usual red and green side 

lights, each showing 10 Fig. 13. Sailing vessels under way 

points. carry red and green side lights 




26 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 

Lights for Sailing Vessels 

Sailing vessels (See Fig. 13) carry the red and green side 
lights, each showing for 10 points, and no other lights, except 
upon the approach of a vessel from astern which is overtaking 
the sailing vessel from such a position that a side light is not 
visible, when the flare-UD or other white light is shown over the 
stern to attract the attention of the approaching vessel. 

Ferry Boats 

Ferry boats carry two central range lights showing com- 
pletely around the horizon, placed at equal altitudes forward and 




Fig. 14. Ferry boats carry two central range lights at equal altitudes 
above the water showing all the way around the horizon, the 
customary colored side lights, and a special distinguishing light 
placed above the central range lights 

aft, and generally on top of the pilot house. (See Fig. 14.) 
In addition, the usual side lights are carried. A ferry boat may 
carry an additional light showing completely around the horizon, 
and usually hoisted on one of the side flag staffs about 15 feet 
above the white lights. This light is used to distinguish the 
particular line to which the ferry boat belongs, and different 



LIGHTS FOR ALL CLASSES OF BOATS ' 



27 



colored lights are used for the different lines. For example, in 
New York harbor, this light on the boats on the Pennsylvania 
Railroad is red, that of the Erie Railroad white, and that of the 
Lackawanna green. Ferry boats which are not of the double- 
end variety carry the usual white lights, and colored side lights 
required by law to be carried by steam vessels navigating those 
waters. 

Harbor Tugs 

In the matter of lights for tow boats, we find two principal 
classes, which might be called sea-going tow boats, and harbor 
tugs, although the lights for harbor tugs are restricted to such 
places as New York Harbor, Long Island Sound, Hudson River, 
and adjacent waters. Harbor tugs (See Fig. 15), with a tow, on 
these waters, carry the usual red and green side lights, and in 
addition either two or three white lights vertically arranged, 
showing completely around the horizon. Whether they carry 
two or three of these lights depends upon the length of their 




Fig. 15. The lights carried by a harbor tug towing one vessel only, 
or when the length of the tow is less than 600 feet if more than 
one vessel is towed. The vessel being towed carries the red and 
green side lights only 



28 



PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 



tow, provided more than one vessel is being towed. When the 
length of the tow of two or more vessels measures less than 600 
feet, then two lights are carried. If this length exceeds 600 feet, 
then three lights vertically arranged are used. A vessel being 
towed carries only the red and green side lights, without the white 
lights. It should be noted that the term "Vessel being towed" 
does not include types of boats which fall into classes usually 
known as barges, canal boats, scows, rafts, etc. These latter 
types have particular lightings, which will be explained shortly. 
When only one vessel is towed, the tow boat shows two white 
lights, irrespective of the length of the tow. 

Ocean-Going Tow Boats 

An ocean-going tow boat (See Fig. 16) displays the two or 
three white lights, according to the length of the tow, but usually 




Fig. 16. Lights carried by a sea-going tug 

the white lights instead of being placed so that they show com- 
pletely around the horizon, are arranged on the forward part of 
the foremast, to show ahead for 20 points only, and in a vertical 
line. The usual red and green side lights are carried, and in 
addition to this, a white light, showing astern only, may be 
carried. This latter light is the only one visible from astern, 
and is used by the boats towed to steer by. It is interesting to 
note that the difference regarding range lights on inland and 
sea-going steamers applies in a similar way to harbor and sea- 
going tugs; in other words, on inland steamers, the range light 



LIGHTS FOR ALL CLASSES OF BOATS 29 

shows completely around the horizon, while on sea-going steam- 
ers it shows ahead only. Similarly on harbor tugs, the range 
lights show completely around the horizon, while on sea-going 
tugs they show ahead only. 

Barges and Canal Boats 

Barges and canal boats towed on certain inland waters, as 
for example, the Hudson River, New York Harbor, Long Island 
Sound, etc., have special lightings. When they are towed in 
tandem there is a white light placed on the forward and after 
ends of each barge, with the exception of the after end of the 
last boat in the tow, which, instead of showing one white light, 



Fig-. 17. Lights carried by railroad floats when being: towed 

displays two white lights horizontally arranged. All of these 
white lights are placed to show completely around the horizon. 

Car Floats 

Fig. 17 is intended to show the lighting of railroad barges 
or scows towed alongside with a tug between them. It will be 
observed that a white light showing completely around the 
horizon is placed on the two outer corners of the two barges. 
Had there been only one railroad float alongside the tug, then 
only white lights on the two outer corners would have been used. 
It will also be noted that the tug is carrying two white lights 
vertically arranged, showing that the length of tow is less than 
600 feet. Furthermore, the tug is carrying the usual red port 
light. Had the height of the float been sufficient to hide this 
port light from its proper view, the port light would have been 
carried on the outer edge of the port barge or float. The same 
is true, of course, of the green light. 

Pilot Vessels 

Pilot vessels (See Fig. 18) on their stations carry in addition 
to the red and green side lights two other lights on their main 



30 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 

mast, showing completely around the horizon, the uppermost 
light of the two being white, and the lower one red. Pilot 
vessels, while not engaged on their station on pilotage duty, 
carry similar lights to those of other vessels. When a pilot vessel 
is engaged on a station on pilotage duty, and is at anchor, she 
does not carry the red and green side lights, but continues to 
display the white and red mast headlights. 

Fishing Boats 

Fishing vessels of more than 10 tons when under way,_ but 
not having nets or lines out in the water, show the same lights 




Fig. 18. Lights carried by a steam pilot vessel on her station 

as other vessels. However, when such vesseis are engaged in 
trawling, dredging or fishing, they exhibit from some part of 
the vessel, where they can best be seen, two lights. One of 
these lights is red, and the other white, and the red light is 
above the white. 

Fig. 19 shows diagrammatically the arrangements for lighting 
the various classes of boats when towed, including the lights 
of ocean-going barges when being towed in tandem. These 
barges carry red and green side lights, and in addition a white 
light at the stern of each barge, snowing astern only, with the 
exception of the last barge in the tow, which instead of carry- 
ing one white light aft snowing astern only, carries two lights, 
horizontally arranged, showing completely around the horizon. 



LIGHTS FOR ALL CLASSES OF BOATS 



31 



Ocean-going barges when towed alongside, if their height is 
sufficient to obscure the side lights of the towing vessel, carry 



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32 



PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 



the red or green starboard light on the proper side, to take the 
place of the obscured light. 

Value of Range Light 

Figs. 20-21 illustrate the value of the after range light. Fig. 
20 shows the various ways which a boat might be heading when 
both the red and green side lights are visible. Consider for a 
moment that your own boat is the one lettered A, and the side 
lights of boat B can be seen ahead of you. If boat B had no 
after range light it would be impossible for you on boat A to 
determine the course of B with any degree of accuracy. Boat B 
might be heading as shown by Bl, B2 or B'5, or, in fact, any 
position between Bl and B3, and from your position on any 
of the boats lettered A you could not determine how B was 
heading. You might assume that the two boats were heading 
as indicated by Bl and A directly under it. In such a case you 
would sheer off to starboard in order to pass port side to port 
side. As a matter of fact, while you assumed the boats to be 
in the position of Bl they might in reality be heading as B3 is 
indicated, and when you threw the head of your boat A across 
the path of B3, a collision would be inevitable — there would 
be no way by which you could determine what the direction of B 
really was. This is not an exceptional case, but a common one, 



i 



A 



/ 



a 




x 



Fig. 20. Various ways a boat might be heading 
when both side lights are visible 



LIGHTS FOR ALL CLASSES OF BOATS 



33 



and one which every boat must be in before passing clear of 
another boat when they are meeting head-on. 

The after range light, if properly placed, is a key to the 
whole situation, as will be observed by the boats B in the upper 
part of the diagram, which are in the position indicated by B 

A 



Z*- *v^_^. 



^ 0* 



B l 



><3 



3£ 



Fig. 21. When only the red side light is seen a very dangerous situa- 
tion might develop. It is the range light which indicates the 
correct heading 

directly under them. The relative position, of the forward 
and after range lights immediately determines the exact positions 
of B. Doubt no longer exists as to the exact course of B, or 
what action A should take to properly clear B. When the range 
lights are directly over each other it is clear that a vessel is 
approaching you dead head-on, but when her course is changed 
even in the slightest, the range lights will open out, the lower 
one drawing away from the upper in the direction in which the 
boat's bow is changing. Without the range lights the boat's 
course might change several points before being made evident 
from the side lights. It is even possible that the course of the 
approaching vessel is away from the course of one's own boat 
when the side lights are first sighted, and that she swings 
around toward your course without this being detected from the 
side lights as the boats draw closer together. It is a very 
dangerous position if the range lights are not properly placed, 
and one which requires great caution. 
A situation not unlike the last when both side lights were to 



34 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 

be seen develops when only one of the side lights is visible. In 
Fig. 21 it will be noted that the red light is to be seen, while 
the green starboard light is hidden. Without a range light it 
would be impossible for you to determine from your position 
on boat A whether boat B was heading as indicated by Bl, B2 
or B3. You might plan your action assuming that the approach- 
ing boat was heading as indicated by Bl, when in reality she 
might be headed as indicated by B2, or even B3, and yet it 
would be impossible for you to determine the exact heading. 
Again the after range light solves the problem. From the upper 
part of this diagram the boats are arranged to show exactly as 
they would from your position on A. Looking at B3 it is hard 
at first to see how the boat in the upper diagram can be heading 
in the direction as indicated directly below it, but nevertheless 
it is a fact that she is. It would almost appear that she is 
heading as indicated by Bl, but by observing more closely, and 
noticing the position of the range lights on the upper left hand 
boat, it becomes apparent that it coincides exactly with the 
diagram of B3 directly below it. If such a situation is complex 
in a diagram, what must the actual situation appear like when 
you are aboard vour own boat? 

When only the green light is visible the situation is not unlike 
that just mentioned. Here again, if it were not for the range 
light, you could not tell from your position on A whether the 
upper boat was heading in a position indicated by Bl, B2, or BS. 

Side Lights Show Across the Bow 

Too much dependence should not be placed on the supposition 
that the colored side lights are not showing across the bow. 
There are several reasons which, if not taken care of, will cause 
the side lights to show across the bow. The position of the 
lamp as a whole must necessarily be several inches at least from 
the inboard screen, and the width of the flame and the reflection 
from the after side of the lightbox all tend to make the lights 
show across the bow to a greater or less degree. 

Special Lights 

A word should be said in regard to a few of what might be 
called special lights. For example, a vessel not under control 
carries two red lights in a vertical line, one over the other, 
arranged to show all around the horizon. If the boat is 
making headway through the water she keeps up her side lights ; 
otherwise, she does not carry them. Anchor lights are, of 
course, familiar to everyone. Boats of less than 150 feet in 
length should carry one anchor light, and boats of a greater 



LIGHTS FOR ALL CLASSES OF BOATS 



35 



length two such lights. A vessel aground in or near a fairway 
carries in addition to the regular anchor light or lights, two red 
lights in a vertical line, one over the other, showing all around 
the horizon. However, this rule applies to International Rules 
only, and in inland waters a vessel aground shows only the 
prescribed anchor lights. There are special lights for draw- 
bridges and dredges, but in most cases these are regulated some- 
what by local authorities. 

Lights for Wrecks, Etc. 

A vessel towing a submerged object displays her regular 
side lights, but instead of the regular white towing lights 
she displays four lights vertically arranged, the upper and 
lower lights being white, and the two middle ones red. 




Fig. 22. Lights carried by boats at anchor. When boats are moored 
in a club anchorage which is not in a channel or does not inter- 
fere with traffic, no anchor lights need be carried 

Steamers and other types of vessels made fast alongside a 
wreck or moored over a wreck which is on the bottom, 
partly submerged, or drifting, display a white light from the 
bow and stern of each outside vessel or lighter, and in addi- 
tion display two red lights vertically arranged where they 
may best be seen from all directions. Dredges which are 
held in a stationary position also display a white light at 
each corner, and two red lights carried in a vertical line 
placed where they may best be seen. 



CHAPTER IV 
Buoys of the Various Types 

(By U. S. Lighthouse Dept.) 

BUOYS are, as a rule, employed to mark shoals or other ob- 
structions to indicate the approaches to and limits of chan- 
nels or the fairway passage through a channel, and in some 
cases to define anchorage grounds. There were some buoys in 
service at the time of the transfer of the lighthouses to the 
Federal Government in 1789. Buoys originally were either solid 
wooden spars or built up in various shapes of wooden staves, 
like barrels. Wooden spars are still extensively used, particularly 
in inside waters ; but built-up buoys are now constructed of iron 
or steel plates. 

Colors and Numbers 

In order to give the proper distinctiveness, buoys are given 
certain characteristic colors and numbers; and, following the 
uniform practice of maritime nations generally, Congress by the 
act of September 28, 1850, prescribed that all buoys along the 
coast or in bays, harbors, sounds, or channels shall be colored 
and numbered so that passing up the coast or sound or entering 
the bay, harbor, or channel, red buoys with even numbers shall 
be passed on the starboard or right hand ; black buoys with odd 
numbers on the port or left hand; buoys with red and black 
horizontal stripes without numbers shall be passed on either 
hand, and indicate rocks, shoals or other obstructions, with 
channels on either side of them ; and buoys in channel ways 
shall be colored with black and white perpendicular stripes, 
without numbers, and may be passed close to, indicating mid- 
channels. Buoys to mark abrupt turning points in channels or 
obstructions requiring unusual prominence, are fitted with perches 
or staves surmounted by balls, cages, or other distinctive marks. 

Buoys marking lightvessel stations are placed in close proxim- 
ity to the lightvessel, are colored in a similar manner, and bear 
the letters LV, with the initials of the stations they mark. Buoys 
defining anchorage grounds are painted white, except those used 
for such purposes at a quarantine station, in which case they 
are painted yellow. 

To assist further in distinguishing buoys, the ordinary types 
are made in two principal shapes in the portion showing above 
the waterline — nun buoys, conical in pattern with pointed tops, 

36 



BUOYS OF THE VARIOUS TYPES 37 

and can buoys, cylinder shaped with flat tops. When placed on 
the sides of channels, nun buoys, properly colored and num- 
bered, are placed on the starboard or right-hand side going in 
from sea, and can buoys on the port or left-hand side. The 
numbers and letters placed on all buoys are formed by standard 
stencils, to insure uniformity, and the largest size practicable 
is used so that these may show as prominently as possible. White 
characters are painted on black buoys and black characters on 
red buoys. 

Anchoring Buoys 

Buoys are anchored in their positions by various types of 
moorings, depending on the character of the bottom and the 
size and importance of the buoy. They are placed in position 
and are cared for by the lighthouse tenders, which are provided 
with 'specially designed derricks and lifting gear for handling 
them. It is customary to relieve all buoys at least once a year 
for overhauling, repairing, cleaning, and painting, and oftener 
when circumstances render it necessary. Although among the 
most useful of aids to navigation, buoys are liable to be carried 
away, dragged, capsized, or sunk, as a result of ice or storm 
action, collision, and other accidents, and therefore may not be 
regarded as absolutely reliable at all times. Great effort is 
made, however, by the Lighthouse Service to maintain them on 
station in an efficient condition, which frequently requires 
strenuous and hazardous exertions from the crews of vessels 
charged with this duty. It is necessary to keep on hand at all 
times an ample supply of spare or relief buoys, with the neces- 
sary appendages, to provide for emergencies and the systematic 
relief of buoys on station. 

Classes 

Buoys may be divided into two general classes, lighted and 
unlighted, of which the latter are in the great majority. Un- 
lighted buoys comprise spars, both wooden and iron, can, nun, 
bell, and whistling buoys, with a few other types for special 
purposes. Lighted btioys are provided with some form of gas 
apparatus and a lantern ; frequently a bell or whistle is also 
attached, in which case they are known as combination buoys. 
A brief description of each kind follows. 

Cans and Nuns 

Cans and nuns, as already noted, are built of iron or steel 
plates, the former showing a cylindrical and the latter a conical 
top, and are the most extensively used of metal buoys. The 
interior of the buoy is divided by bulkheads or diaphragms into 



38 



PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 



two or more compartments, to prevent sinking 
when damaged. Each kind is built in three 
classes or sizes, and in addition there are two 
general types in use — the ordinary type and 
the tall type, or channel buoys. The latter are 
a modern development of a larger and more 
prominent buoy for use in deeper water. These 
buoys weigh from 8,300 to 700 pounds each, 
according to size, and are generally moored 
by means of a stone or concrete block, or a 
especially designed hemispherical cast iron 
sinker, shackled on a length of chain about two 





Fig. 23. An acetylene gas buoy 



■ 



Fig. 24. First-class nun 
buoy witb knife edges 

or three times the depth 
of water in which the 
buoy is placed. The or- 
dinary type buoys require 
a cast iron ballast ball 
attached directly below 
the buoy, the mooring 
chain being shackled in 
turn to the lower end of 
the ballast ball ; this is 
necessary to assist the 
buoy in maintaining an 



BUOYS OF THE VARIOUS TYPES 39 

upright position, regardless of tidal or other currents. The 
ballast ball is not needed with a tall type buoy, which has more 
stability, due to its greater draft and to a fixed counterweight of 
cast iron bolted on its lower end. To prevent kinking or twisting 
of the chain, a swivel is occasionally placed in the mooring chain 
for all types. 

Spar Buoys 

Wooden spar buoys are usually cedar, juniper, or spruce logs, 
trimmed, shaped, and provided with an iron strap and band at 
the lower end for attaching the mooring, which is as a rule a 
heavy stone, or concrete block, or an iron sinker, sometimes 
shackled directly to the buoy, or to a short piece of chain, as 
required by the depth. (See Fig. 25). Such buoys are among 
the most economical and generally used of all aids, and are 
particularly employed in rivers and harbors. They are, how- 
ever, easily damaged by ice or collision, and in some waters 
suffer greatly from the attacks of the teredo and other marine 
borers, although this danger may be reduced by special paints 
or other protective treatment when not unduly expensive. Four 
sizes or classes are in use, varying in length from 50 to 20 feet 
over all, to conform properly to the depth of water at the 
position of the buoy. The weights of such buoys vary from 
1,500 to 350 pounds each. 

Iron spar buoys are built up of iron or steel plates in the form 
of wooden spars, and are particularly valuable where severe ice 
conditions exist, or where the teredo is unusually active. They 
are naturally more expensive and heavier to handle, thus re- 
stricting their use to special localities. They are made in three 
classes, in lengths of from 50 to 30 feet over all, weighing from 
4,000 to 2,000 pounds, respectively. 

Bell Buoys 

Bell buoys have a hemispherical-shaped hull, built of steel 
plates, with flat deck, and carry a steel superstructure which 
supports a bronze bell and usually four iron clappers. The 
motion of the buoy in the sea causes these clappers to strike 
the bell, so that the action is entirely automatic. Although the 
buoy is quite sensitive, and responds to even a very slight motion 
of the waves, the sound may be faint or absent in unusual calms. 
This type of buoy is especially efficient in harbors or inside 
waters for marking points where a sound signal is desired. 
Bell buoys weigh about 6,900 pounds each, complete, and are 
moored by means of a bridle or chain attached to lugs on the 
opposite sides of the hull near the waterline, the same mooring 



40 



PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 




BUOYS OF THE VARIOUS TYPES 41 

being shackled to the middle and lowermost part of the bridle 
and extending in the customary scope of chain with a swivel 
to a heavy cast-iron sinker on the bottom. A large-sized ballast 
ball is shackled to a mooring eye at the bottom of the buoy, and 
the whole effect of this arrangement is to assist in the pendular 
motion necessary for ringing the bell. 

Whistling Buoys 

Whistling buoys are built of steel plates, and consist of a 
pear-shaped body with the smaller end uppermost, with a long 
open tube on the lower end. This tube extends throughout the 
length of the buoy, and is closed at the upper end by a head- 
plate on which is mounted a check valve and a whistle on the 
superstructure of the buoy. The sound is produced by the air 
in the upper portion of the tube being compressed by the falling 
of the buoys in the waves, its means of escape being through the 
whistle. A fresh supply of air is drawn through the check valve 
as the buoy rises again. Like the bell buoy, the sound is auto- 
matic, depending solely on the motion of the waves, and there- 
fore the whistle may be silent when the sea is very smooth. 
The whistling buoy is most efficient in rough outside waters, 
where a ground swell exists, and is employed for important 
points where a sound signal is considered desirable. It is 
generally moored with a single chain of the proper scope and a 
heavy iron sinker. The weight of the buoy is about • 6,500 
pounds. For great depths, where the necessary quantity of chain 
impedes the flotation of the ordinary size of this buoy, a special 
and larger size is in use. This is similar to the regular size in 
design and operation but weighs about 11,000 pounds. 

Lighted Buoys 

Lighted buoys are a modern invention, having come into gen- 
eral use within the last twenty years, and are considered by 
mariners generally as among the most valuable of recent devel- 
opments in coast lighting (See Figs. 23, 26 and 27). The first 
buoy of this kind was a gas buoy established experimentally by 
its manufacturers in 1881 near Scotland Lightship, entrance to 
New York Bay;, it was officially taken over by the Lighthouse 
Service in April, 1884. Electric buoys, operated by a cable from 
shore, were established in Gedney Channel, New York Bay, in 
November, 1888, and were discontinued in 1903, after many mis- 
haps, due chiefly to breaking of the cable. The operating expense 
was high, and in the final year of service these buoys were ex- 
tinguished through accident on 120 nights. 



42 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 

Types of Gas Buoys 

All of the lighted buoys now in service use compressed gas — 
either oil gas or acteylene. Various types of self-generating 
acetylene buoys have been in use, operating on the carbide-to- 
water and water-to-carbide principles, but have been abandoned 
on account of uncertainty of length of run, difficulty of clean- 
ing, and danger of explosion. 

In the types now in use the gas, at a pressure of about twelve 
atmospheres, is contained either directly in the body of the buoy 
or in tanks fitted into compartments of the body, and is piped 
to the lantern at the top of the superstructure. If the light is 
flashing, as is commonly the case, a small pilot light burns con- 
tinuously and ignites the main burner as gas is admitted from 
the flashing chamber, which is a regulating compartment in the 
base of the lantern provided with a flexible diaphragm and 
valves for cutting off and opening the flow of gas at intervals, 
the operation being due to the pressure of the gas in the 
reservoirs. The length of the light and dark periods may be 
adjusted to produce the desired characteristic, such as five 
seconds light, five seconds dark, etc. Some types burn the gas 
as an ordinary flat flame, while others make use of an incan- 
descent mantle, which is, however, not wholly satisfactory in 
rough water on account of the liability of breakage. 

Reliability of Gas Buoys 

Gas buoys are made in a number of different sizes, weighing 
from 2,800 to 34,500 pounds each, depending on the importance 
of the location, and burn continuously by night and day for 
intervals of a month to a year without recharging. The ap- 
paratus is patented by the various makers and has been brought 
by them to a considerable degree of perfection, so that con- 
sidering the rough usage to which such buoys are subjected by 
the elements, gas buoys are generally satisfactory within the 
limits of reliability to be expected from such aids. They should 
not, however, be relied upon implicitly, as they may become 
extinguished or dragged from their proper positions, or the 
apparatus may be thrown out of water, some time elapsing 
before the buoy can be reached to repair or relight it. Gas 
buoys furnish valuable marks for approaching entrances, de- 
fining channels, and marking dangers, and at times may obviate 
the necessity for lightvessels or lighthouses on submerged sites, 
either of which would be many times more expensive. There is 
a constant demand among mariners for more gas buoys and 
for buoys with more brilliant lights. 



CHAPTER V 
Government Navigation Lights 

LET us now turn our attention to what might be called Gov- 
ernment Navigation lights, which are one branch of the aids 
to navigation. The United States Lighthouse Service, under 
whose jurisdiction the Government lights fall, is* charged with 
the establishment and maintenance of all aids to navigation, and 
with all equipment and work incidental thereto on the coasts 
of the United States. The term "Aids to Navigation" comprises 
all land and sea marks established for the purpose of aiding the 
navigation of vessels, and includes light stations, lightvessels, 
fog signals, buoys of all kinds, minor lights, and day beacons. 

Lighthouse Districts 

The service outside of Washington is divided into nineteen 
lighthouse districts ; each of which is under the charge of a 
lighthouse inspector. In each district there is a central office at 
a location selected either because of its maritime importance or 
its geographical location. Each district is provided with one or 
more lighthouse tenders for the purpose of distributing supplies 
and materials, and for the placing and care of the buoys, etc. 

The jurisdiction of the lighthouse service extends over the 
Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific Coasts, the Great Lakes, the principal 
interior rivers, Alaska, Porto Rico and Hawaii, and all other 
territory under the jurisdiction of the United States, with the 
exception of the Philippine Islands and Panama. Only one light 
outside of this territory is maintained wholly or in part by our 
Government. This light is at Cape Spartel, Morocco, and is 
maintained in accordance with an agreement between Morocco, 
the United States, Austria, Belgium, Spain, France, Great Britain, 
Italy, The Netherlands, Portugal, and Sweden. 

The United States coast line, including the Philippines, Pan- 
ama, the Great Lakes and the rivers under the jurisdiction of 
the. Lighthouse Service has a length of 48.881 miles. Omitting 
the coast line of the Philippines and Panama, we have a net 
mileage under the jurisdiction of the service of 37,381. 

Number of Aids to Navigation 

Fig. 29 shows a summary of the aids to navigation under each 
principal class in commission on June 30, 1915. It will be noted 
that there was a total of 14,544 aids on that date. 

43 



44 



PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 




Fig. 28. Method of lighting a portion of the Atlantic Coast by means 
of major lights — their range of visibility 

The term "minor lights" includes post lights and small lights 
which are generally not attended by resident keepers. These 
lights are usually cared for by persons living in the vicinity 
who are not obliged to devote their entire time to the work. 
Lightvessels are used to mark offshore dangers, or the ap- 
proaches to harbors or channels where lighthouses would not 
be feasible or economical. Gas buoys are used to mark harbor 
channels or shoals. Float lights are usually small lights borne 
on a float or raft; they are employed for less important places 
where more convenient or economical than lighted buoys. Fog 



GOVERNMENT NAVIGATION LIGHTS 45 

signals include the various types of aerial sound-producing ap- 
paratus for use in foggy or thick weather. They embrace 
various types of whistles, sirens or horns, actuated by steam 
or compressed air, and bells operated by machinery or hand. 

Lighted Aids 

Lights (other than minor lights) 1,662 

Minor lights 2,837 

Lightvessel stations 53 

Gas buoys 479 

Float lights 124 

Total 5,155 

Unliffhted Aids 

Fog signals .' 527 

Submarine signals _. 50 

Whistling buoys, unlighted 86 

Bell buoys, unlightecl 237 

Other buoys 6,488 

Day beacons 2,001 

Total 9,380 

Grand Total 14.544 

Tig. 29. Total number of aids to navigation 

Early History 

The history of lighthouses in the United States dates back to 
1715, when the first lighthouse on this continent was built at the 
entrance "of Boston Harbor by the Province of Massachusetts. 
The light was supported by light dues on all incoming and out- 
going vessels except coasters. Several other lighthouses were 
built by the Colonies before 1789, when Congress authorized 
that the lighthouses and other aids to navigation be maintained 
at the expense of the United States. The lighthouse service 
of the United States is now supported entirely by appropriations 
out of the general revenues of the Government, and the United 
States lighthouses have been free to vessels of all nations from 
1789 to the present time. There is no system of light dues, as is 
the case in a number of foreign maritime countries. 

Lighthouse keepers receive a yearly salary of from $600 to 
$1,000, depending upon the importance of the light, etc. At- 
tendants of post lights receive on the average $10 per month 



46 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING, 

per light. Each large lighthouse tender costs the service 
about $40,500 annually, a lightvessel $15,300, and an important 
light station, with fog signal, $4,200. The average mainten- 
ance on a gas buoy is $100 to $300. 

Lighting Apparatus 

The earliest type of lighting apparatus consisted of an open 
coal or wood fire, with other inflammable materials such as 
pitch burned on top of a tower. When Boston Light was 
established in 1716 the common oil burner of that period was 
used, enclosed in a lantern consisting of a cylinder- of heavy 
wooden frames, holding small thick panes of glass. The 
illuminant was fish or whale oil. Sperm oil was in general 
use about 1812, and was burned in a lamp with a rough re- 
flector, and a so-called lens or magnifier. Improvements were 
gradually made in this apparatus, and by the year 1840 the 
useless bull's-eye magnifiers had been entirely removed, and 
the reflectors were made on correct optical principles. To 
provide illumination all around the horizon, sets of from 
eight to twenty lamps were used, placed side by side around 
the circumference of a circle. The first lens in the United 
States was installed at Navesink Light, N. J., in 1841, and is 
still preserved by ,the service. 

During the transition period of lighthouse apoaratus from 
reflectors to lenses, sperm oil remained as the leading illum- 
inator, until its price made its use prohibitive. Colza oil was 
used in small quantities about 1862, but during the period 
from 1864 to 1867 lard oil was adopted as a standard illum- 
inant, and was generally employed until 1878, when kerosene 
came into use. Its use gradually increased, and about 1884 
kerosene had become the principal illuminant, and so remains 
at the present time. The lamps used were also improved, 
passing through various styles to a special form of concentric 
wick, using five wicks for the larger sizes. The incandescent 
oil-vapor lamp, which is now generally employed for impor- 
tant lights, burns vaporized kerosene under an incandescent 
mantle, giving a much more powerful light, with little or no 
increase in consumption. 

Various other illuminants are now in use. Oil gas is ex- 
tensively used, particularly for lighted buoys, and acetylene 
gas is employed for light buoys and unattended light beacons. 
Electric arc and incandescent lights are used in special in- 
stances. Electric lights with distant control are employed 
in a number of cases where a reliable source of current can 
be obtained. 



GOVERNMENT NAVIGATION LIGHTS 



47 



Classification of Lights 

Lights have heretofore been classed according to their 
order; that is, first order, second order, third order, etc., down 
to the sixth order, inclusive. The order of the lens depends 
upon the inside radius or focal distance of the lens, that is, the 
distance from the center of the light to the inner surface of 
the lens. In a first order light this distance is 36.2 inches, 

in the second order 27.6 inches, 
and in the sixth order light the 
focal distance is 5.9 inches. The 
power of light does not vary 
directly with the order. The 
designation of lights by orders 
has, therefore, been discon- 
tinued in the light lists, and 
instead the candlepower is 
given. From the stated candle- 
powers the mariner may judge 
relative brilliancy and power of 
the various lights. Candle- 
powers are stated approximate- 
ly in English candles, but the 
intensity of the lights as seen 
from a boat may be greatly 
lessened, or a light made in- 
visible by unfavorable con- 
ditions, due to haze, fog, rain, 
or smoke. 

Range of Visibility 

Under normal atmospheric 
conditions, the visibility of the 
light depends upon its height 
and intensity, the distance due 
to the former being known as 
a geographic range, and to the 
latter as a luminous range. As 
a rule* for the principal lights, 
the luminous range is greater 
than the geographic range — 
that is, the distance from which 
the principal lights are visible 

Tig. 30. First order lens used by is i in ? ited by the h °7 z0 ? only, 

the Lighthouse Department and in some atmospheric con- 




48 



PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 



ditions the glare of the light, ,and occasionally the light itself, 
may be visible beyond the computed geographic range. The 
distances of visibility are given in nautical miles. 

Characteristics of Lights 

In order to avoid the likelihood of confusion between 
lights, endeavor is made to give them distinctive character- 
istics. Since much of the coast was lighted before the intro- 
duction of modern lighthouse apparatus, the original lights 
were as a rule fixed, but at the more important of these sta- 
tions apparatus has now been installed to make the lights 
flashing or occulting. This effect is produced in the case of 
flashing lights by revolving all or part of the lens, and in 
the case of occulting lights by some form of traveling screen 
or shutter, which obscures the light at intervals. In either 
case the regulation is by clockwork. 








Fig. 31. The old and new lighthouses at Cape Charles 



GOVERNMENT NAVIGATION LIGHTS 



49 



The usual phases are as follows: 

Fixed : Showing a continuous steady light. 

Flashing : Showing a single flash at regular intervals. 

Fixed and Flashing : Showing a fixed light varied at regu- 
lar intervals by a single flash of greater brilliancy. 

Group Flashing : Showing at regular intervals groups of 
flashes. 

Occulting : Showing a steady light, suddenly and totally 
eclipsed at regular intervals. 

Group Occulting : Showing a steady light suddenly and 
totally eclipsed by a group of two or more eclipses at 
regular intervals. 

The above refers only to lights which do not change color, 
commonly white, but further diversification is obtained by 




Fig. 32. Showing the characteristic day mark used on the 
lighthouse at Cape Hatteras 

the use of red screens, changing the color from white to 
red in various combinations. Such lights are known as alter- 
nating. In the case of gas or electric lights the supply of 
gas or current is cut off at intervals. 

The term flashing or occulting refers to the relative dura- 



50 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 

ticn of light and darkness, the flash being an interval shorter 
than the duration of an eclipse, and occultation being shorter 
than or equal to the duration of light. Red sectors are pro- 
duced by screens of colored glass. They are often employed 
to mark outlying dangers near the light or the limits of 
channels, and are usually arranged so that the light shows 
white while a passing vessel is clear of such dangers, chang- 
ing to red as a shoal or other obstruction is approached. 

Day Marks 

To assist identification in daylight, towers are frequently 
distinguished by characteristic painting, in addition to pecu- 
liarities of form or outline. The effect of certain colors when 
combined in bold patterns of spirals, bands or blocks is quite 
striking in a number of important lighthouses. Fig. 32 shows 
the characteristic markings of a lighthouse at Cape Hatteras, 
N. C. This tower is the tallest in this country, being 200 
feet high. The light is visible from the deck of a vessel 
twenty nautical miles distant. Its characteristic is a flashing 
light for ten seconds. 

Day Marks for Vessels 

A vessel towing a submerged ibject in the daytime shows 
two shapes, one above the other in the form of a double 
frustum or cone, base to base, the upper cone being painted 
with alternating horizontal stripes of black and white, and 
the lower shape being painted bright red. 

Steamers, lighters and other vessels made fast alongside 
a wreck, or moored over a wreck, display two shapes 
similar to the foregoing, except that both shapes are painted 
bright red. 

Dredges held in a stationary position show two balls in 
the daytime, vertically arranged, and placed in a position 
where they can best be seen. 

Self-propelled suction dredges under way, with their suc- 
tion on the bottom, display the same signals as used to 
designate a steamer not under control, that is, two black 
balls placed where they may best be seen from all direc- 
tions. 

Vessels which are moored or anchored and engaged in 
laying pipe or operating on submarine construction, display 
in the daytime two balls in a vertical line, the upper ball 
being painted with alternating black and white vertical 
stripes, and the lower ball being bright red. 



CHAPTER VI 
Equipment Required by Law 

Class I— Boats Under 26 Feet, L. O. A. 

Lights — Combination red and green lantern (or bow and 
colored side lights) and stern light. 

Sound Apparatus — Whistle capable of producing blast pro- 
longed for at least 2 seconds. 

Class II— Boats 26-40 Feet, L. O. A. 

Lights — White forward light (lens at least 19 sq. in.) ; white 
stern light; green starboard light; red port (lenses at least 16 
sq. in.); screens at least 18 in. long; lenses, fresnel or fluted 
glass. 

Sound Apparatus—Same as Class I plus fog-horn and bell. 

I 
Class Ill—Boats 40-65 Feet, L. O. A. 

Lights — White forward light with with lens at least 31 sq. in. ; 
white stern light; green starboard light; red port light (lenses 
at least 25 sq. in.) ; screens at least 24 in. long; lenses, fresnel or 
fluted glass. 

Sound Apparatus — Same as Class II, except bell must be at 
least 8 in. across mouth. 

All Classes 

One life preserver for each person on board. [Life pre- 
servers, life belts, buoyant cushions, ring buoys, or similar de- 
vices in sufficient number for every person on board, and placed 
so as to be readily accessible. Life presesvers or buoyant 
cushions must be capable of keeping afloat for 24 hours a weight 
exerting a direct downward pull of 20 pounds, on boats not carry- 
ing passengers for hire. No pneumatic life-saving appliances, or 
appliances filled with granulated cork will be permitted. Planks, 
gratings, etc., or small boats in tow cannot be substituted for 
required life-saving appliances. Floats of seasoned wood, not 
exceeding white pine in weight and measuring at least 4 
feet by 14 inches by 2 inches, may be used.] 

A fire extinguisher capable of extinguishing gasoline fires. 

At anchor, a white light only, less than 20 feet above hull, 
visible around horizon for at least one mile. 

Two copies of the Pilot Rules must be carried on, board. 

51 



52 



PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 






What the Law Requires. 





Fig. 33. Some of the equipment required by law which has been 
approved by the Government 



CHAPTER VII 
The Compass 

THE discovery and early history of the mariner's compass 
is extremely doubtful, the Chinese, Arabs, Greeks, Finns 
and Italians all having been declared its originators. There 
is now little doubt that the claim formerly advanced in favor of 
the Chinese is ill founded. There is no genuine record of a 
Chinese marine compass before A. D. 1297. No sea-going 
ships were built in China before 139 B. C. 

What the Compass Is 

The compass is nothing more than a magnet suspended so 
as to be allowed to swing freely in a horizontal plane. In 
theory, an ordinary knitting needle magnetized by drawing 
a toy magnet along its length a few times, and suspended 
from the center by means of a thread so that it can swing in 
a horizontal plane, is as much of a compass as the ones we 
use on our boats to-day. If such a needle is magnetized and 
suspended it will immediately assume a north and south 
position. 

But the compass consists of a number of magnetized needles 
bound together, and suspended or pivoted from beneath. On 
this bundle of magnetized needles we have a card mounted to 
give us a better sense of direction, and allow us to determine 
directions other than north and south, which would be the only 
two indicated by the magnetized needles if we had no card 
mounted thereon. 

There has been little or no change in the mariner's compass 
for centuries. In theory and construction it is practically 
the same as it was more than one hundred years ago. The 
only changes which have been made are refinement in its con- 
struction, and the markings on the compass card. 

v 
The Dry Compass 

The older compasses were known as dry compasses; that 
is, simply magnetic needles and a card pivoted at the center. 
Naturally such an arrangement was very sensitive and re- 
sponded to the motion of the ship very freely. With the 
coming of the steam engine, and later, the internal combus- 

53 



54 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 

tion motor, it was found that the vibrations set up by the 
machinery were such as to keep the compass card in constant 
motion, which naturally made it unreliable as a navigating 
instrument. The development of the liquid compass followed, 
and this type overcomes to a large extent the difficulty and 
trouble experienced with the dry compass. 

The Liquid Compass 

The liquid, or wet compass, is practically no different from 
the dry compass, with the exception that a liquid generally 
consisting of a mixture of 55 per cent, water, and 45 per cent, 
alcohol is introduced into the bowl of the compass, and then 
the latter is sealed up. The liquid not only prevents the 
compass needle and card from responding to small vibrations 
due to power plants and the sea, but also tends to buoy up 
or float the needle and card, and thus make it rest more lightly 
on its pivot. This allows the card to turn more freely as the 
ship is turned, or rather ito hold its position more steadily 
as the ship's bow is turned away from the compass. The 
smaller and less expensive compasses use kerosene as the 
filling liquid, and some of the newer makes use oil instead 
of alcohol and water. On account of the nature of the various 
kinds of fluids used, the compass as we know it is practically 
non-freezable in ordinary latitudes. 

The Lubberline 

Compasses are fitted with a gimbal ring to keep the bowl 
and card level under every circumstance of a ship's motion 
in a seaway, the ring being connected with a binnacle or com- 
pass box by .means of journals or knife edges. On the inside 
of every compass bowl is drawn a vertical black line called 
the lubberline, and it is imperative that the compass be placed 
in the binnacle or on the boat so that a line joining the pivot 
and the lubberline shall be parallel to the keel of the boat. 
Thus, the lubberline always indicates the compass direction 
on which the boat is heading. 

The Old Card 

Generally speaking, there are two methods in use for mark- 
ing or dividing the compass card, which we may designate 
for want of better names as the old card, and the new card. 
On the old card shown in Fig. 34 it will be noticed that the 
card is divided into 32 major divisions known as points, and 
that those major divisions are further subdivided into four 
parts. It will also be observed that the card is divided on 



THE COMPASS 



55 



its periphery into degrees. It is in the method of putting 
the degrees on the compass card that the new card differs 
from the old one. 

Degrees 

On the old card North and South are both marked zero, 
and East and West are each marked 90, the divisions run- 
ning from North and from South towards East and West 
from zero degrees to 90 degrees. In lother words, we have 
45 marked opposite Northeast, as well as Southeast, South- 
west and Northwest. To steer a course by this method of 
dividing the card it is necessary to add either the designa- 
tion North or South to the degrees ; that is, if we wished to 
steer Northeast we should call our course North 45 degrees 
East, and if we wished to steer Southeast this course would 
be called South 45 degrees East. Similarly, Southwest is 




Fig:. 34. The compass card 

South 45 degrees West, and Northwest North 45 degrees 
West. One advantage of this method of designating the 
compass is the ease with which reverse courses may be re- 
membered. For example, if a certain course were North 60 



56 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 

degrees East, then when returning over the same course the 
compass would indicate South 60 degrees West. 

Points 

Division of the compass card according to points, is a most 
interesting one, and as it is the method which is generally 
used by motor boatmen it is the one which will require our 
greatest attention. As mentioned above, the card is divided 
into 32 major divisions known as points, each one of these 
points having a particular name. The four principal, or card- 
inal points are known as North, South, East and West. The 
inter-cardinal points are the ones midway between the card- 
inals, and these are given a name which is a combination of 
the points which they bisect; that is, the point midway between 
North and East is known as Northeast, etc. This gives us 
eight divisions. We now subdivide these eight divisions in 
half, and once again we give these eight new points names 
which are combinations of the two points which they are mid- 
way between. For example, the point midway between North 
and Northeast is North Northeast. That point midway be- 
tween South and Southwest is South Southwest. To get the 
additional 16 points it is simply necessary to divide points 
which we have already determined in a similar way as before. 
Here again the new points will have names corresponding to 
the points to which they are adjacent. The word "by" will 
be used in all of these 16 new points. For instance, the point 
between North and North Northeast is known as North by 
East, because it is adjacent to North, and in an easterly 
direction from North. The point between Southeast and 
South Southeast is known as Southeast by South, because it 
is adjacent to the inter-cardinal point Southeast, and in a 
southerly direction from it. 

Quarter Points 

For the purpose of steering more accurate courses than 
would be possible by following only 32 points, we must sub- 
divide the points into halves and quarters. The naming of 
these quarter points is most interesting, and must be thor- 
oughly mastered by the motor boatman at the beginning. 
Naturally it will be seen that every quarter point might have 
two names; that is, it might refer to the point either to the 
right or to the left of it. For example, the quarter point just 
to the right of North could logically be called North Va East, 
or it might be called North by East Va North. Either of these 
designations would probably convey to the man at the wheel 



THE COMPASS 



57 



the course which it was desired that he should follow. How- 
ever, and perhaps unfortunately, there is a certain method of 
calling these quarter points, and again we are confronted 
with two methods instead of one. 

The older method appears to many to be the most logical 
one, although the Navy Department has seen fit to adopt one 
of its own. It makes little difference which of these methods 
is adopted by the motor boatman. Both are correct. 

Fig. 35 shows the two methods of naming the quarter 
points, and in it Fig. I shows the older method. This system 
is to name the quarter points from each cardinal or inter- 





I 



a 



Fig. 35. The two methods used in naming the quarter points 
of the compass 



cardinal point toward a 22^2-degree point; that is, toward 
North Northeast, East Northeast, East Southeast, South 
Southeast, South Southwest, West Southwest, West North- 
west, and North Northwest. The United States Navy method 
is to name the quarter points from North and from South 
towards East and West, excepting that the division adjacent 
to a cardinal or inter-cardinal point is always connected with 
that point. This method is shown in II of Fig. 41. 



CHAPTER VIII 
Compass Errors 

EVERYONE knows that the compass points North, or at 
least, should point North. Unfortunately, we have two 
Norths. One of these is the upper extremity of the earth's 
axis, and is known as the geographic or true North. The com- 
pass does not point to this North, but always points towards 
what is known as the magnetic North. Magnetic North is 
located at some distance from the true North, roughly in- 
dicated by Fig. 36. 

Variation 

If you were on your boat at the position marked A, and 
your boat was heading as indicated by the dotted line, she 
would be heading true North, but the compass would be 
pointing in a decidedly different direction, indicated by the 
dotted line from A with a point marked MN. In other words, 
your boat would be headed true North, but the magnetic heading 
would be quite different. This angular difference between the 
true North and the magnetic North is known as the variation 
of the compass, shown in Fig. 36 by the angle between TN, A, 
and MN. 

One will immediately see from Fig. 36 that this variation of 
the compass is not constant; that is, it is different with every 
change in geographical location. If your position is at B, your 
boat is still heading true North, and your compass towards MN. 
Observe that the angle between true North and the magnetic 
North at position B is decidedly different and smaller than when 
at A. In other words, the variation of the compass at B is much 
less than at A. In both cases the magnetic North has been to 
the West, or to the left of the true North, which makes the 
variation what is known as x westerly. Now consider for a 
moment your position at C. In this case you will notice that 
your boat is heading towards the true North, and also towards 
the magnetic North. In other words, there is no angle between 
the two poles. Therefore, at position C, or anywhere along the 
dotted line leading from C towards the poles, the variation is 
zero. At' D we again have a variation, but in this case the 
magnetic North is to the East, or to the right of the true 
North, and we, therefore, have an easterly variation. At E, the 

58 



COMPASS ERRORS 



59 



boat is heading towards the true North, but going away from 
the magnetic North. In such a case, while the boat is heading 
North, the compass is pointing South, and we have 180 de- 
grees variation. 

Change in Situation 

As has just been mentioned, the variation of the compass 
is different for every geographical location. In the vicinity 

•■ «of New York Citv 
the variation is 
about 9 degrees 
westerly; around 
Portland, Me., it 
is about 15 de- 
grees westerly. As 
we go West the 
variation becomes 
less and less until 
in the vicinity of 
Lake Superior we 
have zero varia- 
tion. Farther West 
than this the va- 
riation becomes 
easterly, and in- 
creases in magni- 
tude. 




fs- 



Figr. 36. Showing: variation of the compass 
and how it differs in "amount at different 
locations on the earth 



Determining Va- 
riation 

One may now 
ask how to de- 
termine what this 
variation is. This 
is a relatively simple matter, as on every one of our Gov- 
ernment charts this information is given. Fig. 37 gives 
what is known as the compass rose on the chart, several of 
which are printed on every one. The note in the center of 
this rose, "Variation 13 degrees 40 minutes West in 1915," 
gives the information in regard to variation at the particular 
location where this rose is printed. From the statement 
directly >below, "Annual increase 6 minutes," it will be recog- 
nized that variation is not a constant quantity, but is in- 
creasing or diminishing all the time". To calculate what the 



60 



PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 



variation is to-day, that is, in 1917, we simply must add 12 

minutes to the variation as noted above. 

On this compass rose there are an inner and an outer set of 

divisions, the inner one being in points and quarter points, 

and the outer in degrees. The two do not correspond— that 

is the North magnetic div- 
ision is not pointing to 
zero degrees but to a 
division about 14 degrees 
West of zero. The explan- 
ation of this is that the 
outer divisions in degrees 
refer to the true North, 
and are known as true 
courses, while the inner 
divisions refer to the 
magnetic North. It is al- 
most invariablv true that 
when courses are given in 
degrees they are true 
courses, and that when 
they are given in points 
they are magnetic courses. 
The magnetic ones are far 
the more simpler for our 
use, as we need to take 
no account of variation 

whatsoever in dealing with magnetic courses. Variation 

comes in only when we refer to true courses. 

Deviation 

But there is one error entering into our compasses both 
wheniwe talk about magnetic, as well as when referring to 
true courses, and this error is caused by magnetic substances 
such as iron and steel on our boats. The error caused by the 
effect which this magnetic substance has on our compass, 
moving the needle one way or the other, is called deviation. 
It exists to a greater or less degree on every motor boat. 
Moreover, deviation on any boat is not constant ; that is, it is 
different in amount for every different heading of a boat. 

Fig. 38 shows why this difference in the amount of devia- 
tion occurs. Here we have three boats. In the first case, 
the boat is heading approximately North. The black dot- is 
used to represent the center of magnetic attraction on the 




Fig. 37. The compass rose showing: 
the amount of variation. Several 
of these roses are to be found 
on every chart 



COMPASS ERRORS 



Cl 



boat. When the boat is heading approximately North, as 
shown, the pull of this center of magnetic attraction will be 
exerted most strongly on the South point of the compass, 
and in the direction which is approximately Southeast. As 
the boat swings around to the easterly direction, it is ap- 
parent that the attraction is on altogether different points 
of the compass. Naturally, this will cause the compass to 
have a deviation decidedly different from that of the first case. 




Fig-. 38. Deviation of the compass and why it differs on the various 

headings 

As the boat swings around to a westerly direction, the pull 
of the magnetic substances on the boat is again different, and 
causes an entirely different effect on the compass. In other 
words, the deviation is different on every different heading. 
It cannot be assumed that because we have one point west- 
erly deviation when heading North we will have the same 
amount when heading "East or South. 

Determining Deviation 

The question now arises not only how to determine the devia- 
tion of one's compass, but how to correct the compass so that 
no deviation will exist. The former is simple, the latter, very 



62 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 

complex and difficult. It is much simpler to determine the 
deviation, know how much it is, and let it exist, than to attempt 
to correct and compensate for this error. 

To determine the amount of deviation, it is simply neces- 
sary to choose a number of courses whose direction can be 
determined from one's chart, and then put one's boat over 
these courses, and note the direction shown by the compass. 
For example, choose two points on the chart which are 
directly North and South of each other; that is, two light- 
houses, buoys, headlands, or other points which can be readily 
distinguished. Put the boat over this course, and note the 
course which the compass shows. Perhaps it will be North 
by East. Make a note of this. Now turn the boat directly 
about, and she will be heading in a southerly direction. Again 
note what the compass shows, and set it down on paper. In 
this way pick out as many courses as possible, and put your 
boat over them, noting in each case what the compass shows, 
which will give you a deviation card. 

Easterly and Westerly Deviation 

When the north pole of your compass is swung to the right, 
or toward the East by the magnetic substance on the boat, 
the deviation is said to be easterly. When the north pole is 
swung to the left or to the West, we have a westerly 
deviation. Deviation refers to the north point of the com- 
pass, and to no other point — which fact should be remembered 
by everyone. 

Applying Deviation 

The process of applying deviation to determine compass 
courses is one which the navigator must do for himself, and 
make himself a thorough master of. No course can be set 
or bearing plotted without the application of this problem, 
and a mistake in its solution may produce serious conse- 
quences. Rules as to the application of deviation are of little 
service. The motor boatman must practise and work thein 
out for himself. 

Compass courses and magnetic courses should not be con- 
fused. The former is that shown by the compass on your 
boat, and the magnetic or correct course is the one shown 
by the chart. To find a compass course when the deviation 
of your compass is westerly, the compass course which you 
should steer will be to the right of the magnetic or correct 
course. In other words, apply a westerly error to the right 
to find the compass course which should be steered. When 



COMPASS ERRORS. 



63 



the error of your compass is easterly, the compass course 
which should be steered to allow for this easterly error, is to 
the left. 

To find the magnetic, or true course from your compass 
just the reverse of the above must be done; apply an easterly 
error to the right, and a westerly error to the left. 

Fig. 39 shows three boats heading in exactly the same 
direction. In Fig. I of this diagram, there is zero deviation. 
In this case the magnetic course is N N W, the true course 
N N W, and the compass course N N W. In Fig. II, we ( 




Fig. 40. Determining- deviation by means of the sun compass 



have a variation of two points westerly, but with zero devia- 
tion. In this case the true course is N N W, the magnetic 
course is N, and the compass course N. In Fig. Ill we have 
two points westerly deviation, and one point easterly devia- 
tion. Here we have a true course of N N W, a compass 
course of N by W, and a magnetic course of N. 



64 



PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 








5Jt 

P 

u 



r- — 

C2 




N 



« 


a 


9 


a. 




a 


= 


a 


C 


V 


e 







— 


X 


— 


X 




a 


•+w 


a 


a 


5 


a 


c 


a 


e 






+- 


"0 


a 


c 


£ 


a 


v 




-a 






« 




MM 




-»- 




~ 




= 




u 




a 




a 




„ 




* 




a 




i- 





H I 



if 



COMPASS ERRORS 



65 



The Sun Compass 

H one does not look with favor upon the scheme of deter- 
mining the deviation of his compass on various headings, then 
probably the next best method is that which employs a sun 
compass or shadow pelorus, as it is sometimes called. Any 
amateur without previous experience can determine the devia- 




Fig. 41. Determining deviation by means of a bearing 1 on, a distant 
object, a brass screw and a piece of wire. The outside semi- 
circle is included in the diagram merely as an indication that the 
lighthouse (shown with a strip of shore line immediately below 
the hand) bears N % E magnetic from the boat's position. The 
inner (elliptical) circle represents the boat's compass card with 
the lighthouse bearing N by E when the boat is heading NW, 
thereby revealing a deviation of % point westerly. The correct 
course is, therefore, NW % N (shown by the dotted line to this 
point on the semicircle) 

tion of his compass within a quarter point with the sun com- 
pass. As will be seen from Fig. 40, the sun compass is noth- 
ing more nor less than a reversed compass card, so mounted 
in a box that it can be turned around its center at will. At 
its center a hole is drilled, and a straight wire some three or 



66 



PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 



four inches in length projects vertically upward. On the box 
at A a line corresponding to the lu'bberline of the magnetic 
compass is cut, and the sun compass is always so placed on 
the boat that the mark A will represent the bow of the boat 
either by being in line with the bow if the sun compass is in 
line with the keel of the boat, or else so that an imaginary line 




Fig. 42. A deviation card 

drawn through A and the center of the compass will be 
parallel to the keel of the boat. 

After the sun compass has been placed as noted above, it 
is an easy matter to determine the 'heading of the boat. By 
comparing this heading with that 'heading as indicated by the 



COMPASS ERRORS 67 

boat's compass, the deviation can be read off directly. There 
is a small table which accompanies the sun compass that 
must be used with it in determining the deviation. This table 
tells one at what figure on the sun compass the line at A. 
must be set for any time of the day. The sun shining on the 
sun compass causes a shadow to fall from the upright wire, 
and this shadow cuts a point indicating the heading of the 
vessel. For example, on May 1 at 10.20 A. M. at New York 
City the table will tell one to set the movable dial at 115. 
If the shadow from the wire then falls for example at S E ^ 
E, this will be the true direction in which the iboat is head- 
ing. Now, if the compass shows S by E at the same moment, 
and we .have a variation of one point as shown by the chart, 
we know at once that our compass has an error due to devia- 
tion of y% of one point. 

The Deviation Card 

Fig. 42 shows another form of deviation card which is very 
convenient. The inner compass is magnetic, and the outer 
one represents the compass on your craft. Put your boat 
over a number of courses whose magnetic direction, can be 
determined from the chart, and note the headings as indicated 
by the compass. Draw a line in each case on the above card 
from the point on the inner (magnetic) compass, representing 
the chart course, to the outer point which is indicated by your 
compass. Going over eight courses and the reverse of them 
will give you the deviation of your compass on sixteen dif- 
ferent headings. You will then have a deviation card which 
will show the compass course which should be steered for 
any magnetic course. 



CHAPTER IX 
The Chart 

THE nautical chart is a miniature representation of a por- 
tion of the navigable waters of the globe. It generally in- 
cludes an outline of adjacent lands, aids to navigation, 
depth of waters, character of the bottom, etc., with considerable 
information in tables. The chart should be carefully studied, 
and among other things all of its notes (See Fig. 43) should 
be read, as valuable information may be given in the margin 
which it is not practicable to place upon the chart abreast of 
the locality affected. 

The motor boatman should be especially careful that the 
chart is of recent issue, or bears corrections of recent date, 
which facts should always be clearly shown upon its face. 
It is well to proceed with caution when the chart of any 
locality is based upon an old survey. Even if the original sur- 

SOUNDINGS 

The soundings are in fathoms except o'rv the tinted surfaces, 
where they are in feet, and show the depth at mean low water. 



SIGNS AND ABBREVIATIONS 

•*• L\S. S. life saving station. (T) connected with general telegraphic system, 

■f Stations of Mass. Humane Society 

j 

C. can, N. nun, S. spar. * Hock awash at any 

f Red. buoy,- to be left to starboard in entering \ stage of the tide. 

f Black buoy,- to be left to port in entering. + Sunken rock. *** Wreck. 

f Black and red horizontal stripes; danger buoy. 
\ Black and white perpendicular stripes; channel buoy. 

M. mud,S. sand, G. gravel, Sh. sliells, P. pebbles, Sp. specks, 
bk.black.wJi. white, rd. red.yl.yeVxm', gy.gray, bxi. blue, dk. dark, It: light, 
hrd. hard, sft. soft, fhe. fine, crs. coarse, rky. rocJty, stk. sticky, brk. broken, 

Fig. 43. A note from a Government chart showing: some of the 
information given on charts 

68 



THE CHART 



69 



tlOHTS 
F signifies Flved.- Fig. Hashing, Fl. Mash.- T\». Flashes.- Rev. Revolving, W. White, R. Jied.w. varied, by- Sec . Sector. 



-JM. 


■*4« 


"rem Gr*»*iM»i<i*j. 


ChmmctEr 


httorral 


Color of 


H.igM 


Tuibflit^ in 
15 ft. eh-TtxtLan. 


ro< . 


Submarine 
Bells 


Cross Bip (LightVessel) 






F.R. 




Black 


39 ft. 


.114, 


Bell or Horn 




Byonnis (Rearfvan£e 


4l"38'll" 


70* ir20" 


* 




White 


42 „ 








Bramris Bn.(Fronl „ ) 






» 




Lead 


22 „ 








CapePoge 


41' 25' 16" 


70* 27' 06" 


FI&W.&R. 


cw 


White 


54„ 


325* 






Edgar town 


41" 23' 27" 


70' 30' 13" 


F.W. 




„ 


48 „ 


12| 


Ben 




East Chop 


41*28' 13" 


70*34'O5" 


FI&R. 


0*"(0* 


Brown . 


79 „ 


14i 


», 




WestChop 


41*28' 51" 


70'36'01" 


F.W. Ff .Sec. 




White 


83 „ 


14S 


Whistle 




NobskaPoint 


41*30' 57" 


70*3920" 


„ » 




White 


8ft,, 


15 


Bell 




Tni-pmitm Cove 


-4T28'08" 


70'45'29" 


FW.v.W.FI. 


m 30* 


White 


77 „ 


14i' 


„ 




GayHeed 


41'20'55" 


70"50'08" 


Flg.W.&R 


O m IO* 


Bed 


170 „ 


194 






Cul.tyliiink 


41 , 24'52" 


70'57'01" 


F.W. 




White 


61 „ 


12$ 






Dumpling Rock 


41'32'18" 


70' 55' 19" 


FW.R.Sec. 




„ 


48„ 


124 


lrnmpet. 




Butler Flat* 


41*36' 14" 


70' 53' 42" 


FI&W. 


m 05 5 


„ 


53 „ 


12*. 


Bell 




Palmer Island 


41' 37' 37" 


70*54'35" 


F.R. 




- 


34„ • 


8i 


» 




NedPoint 


41*39' 03" 


70*47 r 46" 






White 


40„ 








Birdlsland 


41" 40' 10* 


70"43'04" 


F.W.v.W.Fl. 


r2 Q» 


„ 


37 „ 


114 


Bell 




Wings Neck 


41*40'49" 


70'39'42" 


F.W. 




„ 


50 „ 


124 






HeageFen.ee (Lt^es.) 






2 F.W. 




Red. 


50,. 


12i 


Siren 


Signals 4.-1 


Bishop and Clerks 


iil°34t'2&" 


io'js'vi" 


Flg.WR.Sec 


Qm^s 


Grajr 


56,; 


13 


Bell 





Fig. 44. Information in regard to lights and their various properties 
shown on a Government chart 

vey was a good one, on a sandy bottom in a region where 
currents are strong, or the seas 'heavy, marked changes are 
liable to take place. When navigating by landmarks the chart 
of the locality which is on the larger scale should be used. 

The depths of water are shown on the chart in various 
ways. On some larger scale charts they are recorded in feet 
at mean low water, and on others the depths on the clear por- 
tion of the chart are shown in fathoms, and those on the shady 
portion are given in feet, while on other charts all soundings 
are in fathoms. It is absolutely necessary to refer to. the key 
on the particular chart in use to ascertain which method is 
followed in showing the depths. 

As all depths are given for mean low water, it may be that 
the water is deeper or even shallower at the time of your 
sounding than that shown on the chart, and the proper cor- 
rection should be made for the variable factors. 

Different Kinds of Charts 

Three Departments of the Government issue charts, as fol- 
lows : The Coast & Geodetic Survey of the Department of Com- 
merce publishes from its surveys charts which are suited to 



70 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 

the purposes of navigation, commerce, and public defense. The 
Hydrographic Office in the Navy Department has charge of the 
duplication of charts and plans issued by other nations, and the 
publication of charts by the Navy of coasts not under the juris- 
diction of the United States ; the Corps of Engineers in the 
War Department issues charts of the Great Lakes. 

There are four series of charts on the Atlantic, Gulf, Pacific, 
and Philippine Island Coasts, the first series consisting of sail- 
ing charts, which embrace long stretches of coasts — for instance, 
from the Bay of Fundy to Cape Hatteras. These are intended 
to serve for offshore navigation, or between distant points on 
the coast, as for example, Portland, Me., to Norfolk, Va. They 
are prepared for the use of the navigator in fixing his position 
as he approaches the coast from the open ocean, or when sailing 
between distant coast ports. They show the offshore soundings, 
the principal lights and outer buoys and landmarks visible at a 
great distance. 

The second series is known as the general charts of the coast. 
They are on a scale three times as large as those of the first 
series, and embrace more limited areas, such as the Gulf of 
Maine, etc. They are intended for coastwise navigation when 
the vessel's course is mostly within sight of land, and her posi- 
tion can be fixed by landmarks, lights, buoys, and soundings. 

The third series comprises the coast charts, which are con- 
structed on a scale five times as large as that of the second 
series. One inch on these charts represents about one nautical 
mile, or one and one-seventh statute miles. They are intended 
for close coastwise navigation, for entering bays and harbors, 
and for navigating the large inland waterways. 

The fourth series embraces the harbor charts, which are con- 
structed on large scales intended to meet the needs of local 
navigation. 



CHAPTER X 
Publications and Nautical Instruments 

IN order to navigate successfully any small motor craft 
along the thousands of miles of our sea coast, or in and 
around the numerous bays and harbors, it is not necessary 
for the motor boatman to provide himself with an expensive 
set of navigating instruments, such as is needed for deep 
sea navigation, but there are a few of the more simple instru- 
ments and other requisites, which should be aboard every 
craft, whether or not she goes out of sight of land. The cost 
of such instruments is 'trifling — in fact, many of them can be 
home made. These with a little care can be made to give as 
accurate results under ordinary conditions as the more expensive 
and refined instruments will. 

Government Publications 

Among the requisites necessary for this simple coastwise 
navigation, it is hardly necessary to enumerate the more 
common ones. Every motor boatman knows that he should 
have on board for successful piloting the best available chart 
of the locality to be traversed, together with the sailing 
directions and ■ description of the aids to navigation, and, as 
was just pointed out in the last chapter, it is equally important 
that all of these should be brought up to date. 

But the question is how to procure these sailing directions, 
charts, information about aids to navigation, etc. (See Fig. 45), 
and principally how to keep them up to date. Few motor 
boatmen realize that the various departments of the United 
States Government are doing all this work for them, and that 
most of this information can be had for the mere asking. 

Keeping Charts Up to Date 

Keeping the charts up to date is more or less of a serious 
and expensive question for the Government, and unfortun- 
ately a majority of the Government charts cannot be furnished 
gratis to everyone, but after the original chart has been pur- 
chased by the motor boatman at a price which is the actual 
cost to the Government of producing it, he is sure that the 
chart will last many years to come, and still be up to date if 
he cares to take the pains to keep it so. 

71 



72 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 

Every week the Bureau of Lighthouses and the Coast & 
Geodetic Survey publish a pamphlet which shows in detail 
every change which has been made to any aid to navigation 
during that week, or which is proposed for the near future, 
together with much other valuable information, such as 
newly discovered rocks and shoals, and information in re- 
gard to shifting bars, new publications, lists of new editions 
of Government charts, together with a list of canceled edi- 
tions, etc. This pamphlet, which is known as the Notice 




Fig. 45. Government publications which should be 
aboard every motor boat 

to Mariners, is distributed free of charge to any motor boat- 
man who will apply for it to the Division of Publications, 
Department of Commerce, Washington, D. C. 

The items in the Notice to Mariners are arranged in geo- 
graphical order, starting with the eastern coast of Maine, 
continuing South to the Gulf Coast, then giving information 
in regard to the aids to navigation on the Great Lakes, 
Pacific Coast, Alaska, and the Philippine Islands. It clearly 
shows the numbers of Government charts on which the 



PUBLICATIONS, ETC. 73 

change occurs, the page numbers in the Light List, Buoy 
List and Coast Pilot as well. (See Fig. 46.) For example, 
the Notice to Mariners of Sept. 10 gave notice that the char- 
acteristics of the light of the canal approach gas and bell 
buoy located in Cape Cod Bay were to be changed on Sept. 
24 to a flash every six seconds, but with no other change. 
It also stated that this change must be noted on Coast & 
Geodetic Survey Charts, No. 1,208, 1,107 and 1,000; that the 

186. VIRGINIA— Chesapeake Bay— Main Channel— Old 
Point Comfort Light Station— Fog signal changed, February 
10, to an electrically operated bell, to sound 1 stroke every 7\ seconds, 
and moved to the U. S. Engineer wharf, nearer the channel, and about 
170 yards 212*° from the lighthouse. (No. 7, 1917.) 

C. & G. Survey Charts 400, 1222, 77, 376, 1109. 

Light List, Atlantic Coast, 1917, p. 160, No. 844. 

Buoy List, 5th District, 1915, pp 17, 28. 

Coast Pilot, Section C,.1916, p., 129. 

Fig:. 46» A paragraph from the Notice to Mariners 

Light List for the Atlantic Coast edition of 1915 must be 
corrected on page 42, Light No. 182; that the Buoy List for 
the second District, edition for 1914, must be corrected on 
page 29, and that Part 3 of the Coast Pilot must be cor- 
rected on page 58. This notice is further arranged so that 
the corrections can be clipped out of the Notice to Mariners 
and pasted in the particular Light List in its proper position. 
All of this information is sent out every week by the Gov- 
ernment free of charge to anyone who is interested enough 
to have his name added to the mailing list. 

The Light List 

The Department of Commerce publishes annually a Light 
List for the Atlantic and Gulf coasts which includes all 
lighted aids to navigation maintained by or under the author- 
ity of the United States Lighthouse Service. The Light List 
includes lighthouses, lighted beacons, lightvessels, lighted 
buoys and fog signals, but not unlighted buoys or beacons. 
In order to increase the convenience of the list to boatmen 
following or approaching the coast, the coast lights are 
printed in heavier type. 

The Light List, which is also furnished free of charge, gives 
the name of each light and its character and period of light — 
that is, whether it is fixed, flashing, group-flasbing, occulting, 
alternating, etc. It states the location of the light, for ex- 



74 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 

ample "in six fathoms, off the northern point of Iron Bound 
Island," and further gives the latitude and longitude of the 
more important coast lights. The height of such light above 
the sea level, the miles it is visible and the candleoower are 
also included. A description of the structure, lightvessel, or 
buoy with the distance of the top of the lantern above the 
base is also given. The fog signal, Whether it is a bell, horn 
or trumpet, and the number of strokes and blasts and the 
interval between them is valuable and necessary informa- 
tion for every motor boatman. 
The Buoy List 

The Lighthouse Service also publishes and supplies free of 
charge, separately for each lighthouse district, a Buoy List which 
gives a list of all buoys in that district, both lighted and un- 
lighted, as well as all other aids to navigation. The Buoy List 
does not give. as much and as important information as to the 
lights and fog signals as does the Light List. The Buoy List is 
published more for local use, and as far as the actual location 
of buoys is concerned, the larger scale charts are a much more 
certain source of information. Besides showing the location of 
the buoys clearly, most of the Government charts published by 
the Coast & Geodetic Survey contain all the necessary facts 
regarding the buoys. Moreover, the individual charts are cor- 
rected up to the date of their issue by the Government, while the 
Light and Buoy Lists can only be brought up to date by the 
Government when a new edition is published. 

Coast Pilots 

The importance of the motor boat has been recognized by 
the Government in the preparation of the new editions of Coast 
Pilots. Much additional data and information about points fre- 
quented by the motor boatman has been included in the new 
editions, which was decidedly lacking in the older publications. 
For example, the sailing directions are given for entering har- 
bors, bays, inlets, etc., into which it is possible to carry only a 
few feet draft, and for places which particularly provide shelter 
and protection for small craft. Points where fuel, ice, and other 
supplies can be taken on by small boats are mentioned. In the 
Coast Pilots, aside from the sailing directions and detailed in- 
formation for thousands of places on the coast, a great mass of 
general information useful to motor boatmen is given. The 
system of buoyage for the various districts is taken up ; points 
where pilots and tow boats may be obtained; quarantine and 
bridge regulations ; a list of dry docks and marine railways ; a 
table giving the prevailing winds during each month of the year 



PUBLICATIONS, ETC. 75 

for a number of years ; information about fog, when and where 
it is most likely to occur; points where storm warnings are dis- 
played, and practical rules for determining^ the signs of an ap- 
proaching storm; the best method to avoid storms; a list of 
United States Life Saving stations; the amount of variation of 
the compass at different points, etc. 

Tide Tables 

Other publications issued by the Department of Commerce 
which are of great use to the motor boatman are the Tide Tables. 
These are published annually in advance, and are in several 
different forms. One of them is the General Tide Table giving 
information about the tides at all of the more important ports 
of the world. Another edition in the Atlantic Coast Tide Table 
for eastern North America, and a third is the Pacific Coast 
Tide Tables for western North America, Eastern Asia and many 
island groups. 

Besides giving the time of every high and low water for every 
day in the year, the Tide Tables give the height of each of 
these above mean low water. The tables for the Atlantic Coast 
contain these full predictions at twenty important stations on 
the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts, which are extended to about 1,100 
subordinate stations by means of a table of tidal differences. 

Tides and Currents 

A careful distinction should be made between the vertical rise 
and fall of the tide, which is marked at the transition periods 
by a stationary height or stand. The tidal current is the hori- 
zontal transfer of water as the result of the difference in level, 
producing 'the flood and ebb, and the intermediate condition 
known as slack water. It seldom occurs that the turn of the 
tidal stream is exactly coincident with high and low water, and 
in some channels the current may outlast the vertical movement 
which produces it by as much as three hours. The effect of 
such a condition is that when the water is at a stand, the tidal 
stream is at its maximum, and when the current is slack, the 
rise or fall is going on with the greatest rapidity. 

Generally speaking, the rise and fall and strength of current 
are at their minimum along straight stretches of coast upon the 
open ocean, while bays, inlets, and large rivers operate to 
augment the tidal effects, and it is in the vicinity of these that 
one finds the highest tides and strongest currents. The navigator 
need not be surprised in cruising along a coast to notice that 
his vessel is set more strongly toward or from the shore in 
passing an indentation, and that evidences of tide will appear 
more marked as he nears its mouth. 



76 



PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 



Time of High and Low Water 

The prediction of tides for the tide tables is made by means 
of a remarkable machine, which was designed and constructed 
for the purpose in the office of the Coast & Geodetic Survey. 
A photographic reproduction of this machine is shown in Fig. 
47. There are three different harmonic scales for varying 
changes of tide. To prepare the machine for predicting the 
tides at any port, the harmonic constants obtained from an 
analysis of the tidal observations for that port, together with 
certain astronomic data to adapt these constants to the par- 
ticular year to be predicted, must be entered in the machine. 
The machine takes account of the harmonic constants for thirty- 
seven elements of the tide, and after it has been set with these 
constants, the turning of a crank moves a system of pointers 
over dials, from which may be read the height of the tide at 
any desired time, and also very readily the successive high and 
low waters for each day. The times and heights are directly 
tabulated by the operator into a form that is sent to -he 
printer to serve as copy for the tide tables published by this 
Department. It requires from two to three hours for one person 
to set the machine with the constants for any station, and from 




Fig. 47. The machine used by the Government to predict the time 
and heights of tides, at the various sea ports 



NAUTICAL INSTRUMENTS 77 

seven to ten hours more to operate it, and tabulate the tides for 
an entire year. If this machine were operated for ten hours a 
day for 300 working days in a year, the operator could tabulate, 
ready for printing, the time and heights of every high tand low 
water during the entire year for 270 different ports. 

The Chip Log 

The chip log is not used <to any great extent at the present 
time, as it has been superseded by the patent log. The chip 
log (See Fig. 48) consists of three principal parts, known 
as the log-chip, log-line, and the log-glass. The log-chip is 
a thin piece of wood, weighted at one edge sufficiently to 
make it float upright in the water. As it is thrown over- 
board from the boat, it assumes a position at rest relative to 
the boat. In other words, the log-chip remains in a fixed 
position, and the boat sails away therefrom. A log-line is 
made fast to the log-chip in a suitable manner at one end, 
the other end of which is wound upon a reel kept aboard the 
boat. After the log-chip has been thrown overboard, the log- 
line will begin to unwind from the reel, which is generally 
mounted on a spindle to be held in one's hands. At a dis- 
tance of 15 to 20 fathoms from the log-chip a permanent 
mark is placed to allow sufficient length for the log-chip to 
clear the wake of the boat. The rest of the line is divided 




Fig. 48. The chip log: 

into lengths of 47 feet 3 inches, called "knots'" by pieces of fish 
line thrust through the strands. The number of strands of line 
or knots which leave the reel or pass over the taffrail of the 
boat in a given time, in the time which it takes the log-glass 
to empty itself, will be an indication of the speed of the boat. 
The log-line is so attached to the chip that when the entire 
length of the line has been withdrawn from the reel the sharp 
pull will cause one of the attachments in the log-chip to dis- 



78- PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 

connect, and the log-chip will then float in a position of least 
resistance, and can be drawn aboard the boat witihout 
difficulty. 

The Patent Log 

The log is a device for determining the distance which a 
boat has run through the water. There are three principal 
kinds of logs known as the patent log, chip log (page 77), and 
the ground log. Of these the patent log is the only one used to 
any extent to-day. 

The patent log (Fig. 49) consists of a registering device, 
tow line, and a rotator. The registering device is generally made 
fast to some permanent position near the stern of the boat, and 




Fig. 49. The patent log 

the length of tow line used must be sufficient to extend beyond 
the effects of the boat's wake. The rotator is attached to the 
outer end of the log line, and is a small spindle with a number 
of wings or blades extending radially in such a manner as to 
form a spiral, and when drawn through the water in the direc- 
tion of its axis rotates about that axis after the manner of a 
screw propeller. The registering device is so calibrated that 
instead of registering the number of total turns of the rotator 
and log line, it will register in nautical miles. 



NAUTICAL INSTRUMENTS 



79 



The patent log is by no means perfect, especially when 
used on small boats. It is subject more or less to error, some- 
times as great as 10 per cent. The patent log naturally reg- 
isters distance which the boat has run in the water, and does 
not indicate distance relative to some point on land. In other 




Fig. 50. The chronometer 



80 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 

words, to get the net actual distance run, allowance must be 
made in the reading of the patent log for currents, leeway 
and such errors. The patent log cannot be depended upon 
for actual readings at low speeds — that is, speeds of less than 
five or six miles per hour. Wave motion also has consider- 
able effect upon the operation of the patent log. 

The Ground Log 

The ground log follows in a general way the principles which 
govern the chip log; except that a lead which sinks to the 
bottom is used in place of a chip, which floats in a fixed posi- 
tion. The ground log indicates speed relative to the land, and 
no corrections for current, etc., are necessary. 

The Chronometer 

The chronometer, the timepiece used on ships (See Fig. 50), 
differs from the clock or other timekeeping instruments in that 
it is constructed to perform its work with greater precision. 
Correct time, or regularity of a timepiece on shipboard is abso- 
lutely essential. 

Chronometers should be handled with the greatest care and 
should not be subject to jarring, sudden shock or extreme 
changes in temperature. 

As it is beyond the power of human skill to make anything 
absolutely perfect, it follows that all chronometers have more 
or less error. After this error has been reduced to a minimum 
there is no further effort made to adjust the chronometer. How- 
ever, it is essential that the amount which the chronometer 
varies each day should be known, and the variation should be 
constant or nearly so. This error is known as the rate of the 
chronometer and the amount which the chronometer gains or 
loses each day is called the daily rate. 

To insure a uniform rate the chronometer should be wound at 
the same time each day, although it may be capable of running 
a much longer period than twenty-four hours. 

When using the chronometer for the purpose of observations, 
etc., a correction must be made to its reading for the chronom- 
eter's rate. For example, if the chronometer were known to be 
absolutely correct on June 1, and to have a daily rate of + J A sec- 
ond, then when taking an observation on September 1, 11 J A 
seconds would have to be subtracted from the chronometer time 
to obtain the correct time. 

The Lead Line 

Of the instruments necessary for successful piloting, a 
motor boatman should be familiar with a few of the most 



NAUTICAL INSTRUMENTS 81 

common ones. Of these the lead line is probably the most 
useful. As is well known, the lead line is a device for deter- 
mining the depth of water, and consists essentially of a suit- 
ably marked line having a piece of lead of a certain definite 
shape, somewhat similar to a window weight. For use on 
motor boats leads of various weights are used, ranging from 
five to fourteen pounds. A lead line of twenty-five fathoms 
is sufficient for all ordinary purposes. The deep sea lead weighs 
from 30 to 100 pounds, and a line of 100 fathoms or upwards 
is employed. 
Marking the Lead Line 
Lines are generally marked as follows: 

2 fathoms from the lead, with 2 strips of leather. 

3 " " " " " 3 " 

5 " " " " " a white raj?. 

7 " " " " " " red 

10 " " " " " leather having a hole in it. 

13 " " " " same as at 3 fathoms. 

■fK << " *' tt tt it It K it 

■trr «( it a << << tt <( rj i< 

20 " " " " with 2 knots. 

25 " " " " " 1 knot. 

30 " " , " " " 3 knots. 

35 " " " " " 1 knot. 

40 " " " " " 4 knots. 
And so on 

Fathoms which correspond with the depths marked are 
called "marks." The intermediate fathoms are called "deeps." 
The only fractions of a fathom used are the half and quarter. 
The length of lead lines should be checked up frequently 
while wet. The bottom of the lead is hollowed out, and the 
hole is filled with tallow or a like substance by means t of 
which a sample of the bottom is brought up. The process of 
filling the lead with tallow is palled "arming the lead." 

The Sounding Machine 

The sounding machine, which replaces the deep sea lead 
and lead line, has several advantages over the latter, inas- 
much as it permits of faster and more accurate soundings 
being made while the boat is moving through the water. It 
consists of a reel of strong wire mounted on a suitable stand 
and a controlling brake. Crank handles are provided for 
reeling in after the sounding has been made. A lead is at- 
tached to the outer end of the wire, above which is a cylin- 
drical case containing the depth registering device. 

Several forms of depth registering mechanisms are in use, 
one of which was devised by Lord Kelvin. In this, a slender glass 
tube is used, sealed at one end and open at the other. The 



82 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 

inside of the tube is coated with a chemical substance which 
changes color upon contact with sea water. This tube is 
placed closed end up in the metal cylinder and as it sinks 
the water rises in the tube, the air being compressed by a 
force depending upon the depth of the water. The limit of 
discoloration is marked by a clear line and the corresponding 
depth is read off from a scale which goes with the sounding 
machine. With this pressure a slight correction is generally 
necessary to take account of the atmospheric pressure at the 
time the sounding is made. 

Taking a Bearing 

In order to take observations and bearings of distant objects 
with any degree of accuracy, it will be necessary to have some 
form of bearing finder or pelorus. The pelorus as it is manu- 
factured and sold to-day by the dealers in nautical instruments 
is so very expensive that for the little use which the motor 
boatman has for such an instrument it would hardly pay him 
to go to the expense of purchasing one. However, with a little 
care, a home-made bearing finder may be constructed which 
under ordinary conditions will be found to give fairly accurate 
results. 

Fig. 51 illustrates such a bearing finder. A circular piece of 
hard wood is cut out for the base of the instrument, and four 
series of tacks are placed 90 degrees apart, as shown. These 
tacks have the same function as the lubberline on the compass 
bowl. On the wood base a compass card is mounted; this may 
be one of those distributed for advertising purposes, or home- 
made, as the owner prefers. The compass card is mounted at 
its center to the base, so that it may be freely revolved around 
its center. Mounted at the same center will be seen a horizontal 
arm which rests directly on the ©ompass card. This horizontal 
arm is provided at each end with vertical members, which are 
about six inches in height, and have small holes near their upper 
extremity, through which the distant object is sighted. 

To use this bearing finder it is simply necessary to mount it 
in some suitable position on the boat, so that one set of tacks 
will represent the bow of the boat exactly as the lubberline on 
the compass does. The compass card of the bearing finder is 
then turned by hand, so that these objects will be opposite that 
point on the compass card which represents the correct heading 
of the boat at the particular moment the bearing is to be taken. 
Keeping the pelorus base and its compass card in this position, 
the movable sighting vanes of the instrument are then turned 
so that it is possible to obtain a bearing of the desired distant 



NAUTICAL INSTRUMENTS 



83 



object by sighting through the two holes in the uprights. (See 
Fig. 51.) The bearing of the object will then be indicated on 

the compass card below through 
an opening in the horizontal 
member of the sighting vanes. 
If possible, sights or bearings 
on a number of distant objects 
should be taken, and the bearings 
plotted on one's chart as a check. 




If all the lines repre- 
senting the bearings 
intersect in a com- 
mon point, one may 
safely assume that 
the bearings are cor- 
rect. It is hardly 
necessary tp state that 
successive bearings 
should be taken as 
quickly as possible 
after one another, so 
that the boat has not 
covered any appre- 
ciable distance during 
the time. 



Fig. 51. A home-made bearing finder, show- 
ing method of taking a bearing on a 
distant object 



CHAPTER XI 
Piloting 

PILOTING, as the term is popularly* known, is the art of con- 
ducting a vessel in channels and harbors along coasts where 
landmarks and aids to navigation are available for fixing the 
position, and where the depth of water and dangers to navi- 
gation are such as to require a constant watch to be kept 
upon a vessel's course, and frequent changes to be made 
therein. 

Laying a Course 

After one has become familiar with the different instruments 
used for piloting, including the dividers, parallel rulers, and 
course protractors, and if possible the chip log, patent log and 
the lead, he may consider himself qualified, following the in- 
formation we have covered so far, to pilot a boat with safety. 
His first act, after providing himself with the best available 
chart of the locality to he traversed, together with che sailing 
directions and descriptions of the aids to navigation, all of which 
have been brought up to date as explained, will be to lay his 
course. This is done by marking one point upon the chart at 
the boat's position, and another point for which it is desired to 
steer. A line is then drawn connecting the two points, which 
will indicate the course to be steered by the boat. The motor 
boatman should examine carefully along this line on the chart 
to be sure that it clears all dangers. 

Using the Course Protractor 

The next step is to ascertain the magnetic direction of the 
line on the chart, representing the course to be steered. The 
course protractor has generally superseded the ancient parallel 
rulers for the purpose of transferring the direction of the line 
drawn on the chart to the compass rose on the chart, in order 
to determine its direction. In using the course protractor, its 
center should be placed on the chart exactly over the boat's 
position. The arm of the protractor is then swung around to 
the nearest compass rose on the chart, making the hair line down 
the center of the arm pass directly over the center of the com- 
pass rose. Holding the protractor arm firmly in this position, the 
compass part of the protractor is then swung around until the 

84 



PILOTING 85 

hair line cuts the same compass point or degree on the protractor 
compass as it cuts upon the compass rose. The compass and 
the rose are now parallel, or, in other words, they have the same 
variations. Holding the protractor compass firmly against the 
chart, the protractor arm is moved until its center line cuts the 
point on the chart where it is desired to lay a course. The 
compass course either in points or degrees can then be read off 
directly. 

Should the boat's compass have any deviation, the course can 
be easily corrected to take account of this error by simply turn- 
ing the protractor compass around, while holding the arm against 
the chart — clockwise if the error is easterly, and counter-clock- 
wise if the error is westerly. 

Locating- One's Position 

A navigator in sight of objects whose positions are shown 
upon the chart may locate his boat's position by several dif- 
ferent methods. The choice of the method will be governed 




Fig. 52. Locating one's position by means of cross bearings 

by circumstances depending upon which is best adapted to pre- 
vailing conditions. 

Cross Bearings 

One of the most frequently used methods of locating one's 
position is by means of what is known as cross bearings. Choose 
two objects whose position on the chart can be unmistakably 
identified, and whose respective bearings from the boat differ 
as nearly as possible by 90 degrees. (See Fig. 52.) Observe the 



86 



PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 



bearing of each, either by compass or pelorus, taking one as 
quickly as possible after the other. See that the ship is on an 
even keel at the time the observation is made, and if a pelorus 
is used, be sure that the boat heads exactly on the course for 
which the pelorus is set. Correct the bearing so that they will 
be either true or magnetic according as they are to be plotted 
*by the true or compass rose of the chart — that is, as observed 
by the compass apply deviation and variation to obtain the true 
bearing, or deviation alone to obtain the magnetic bearing. Draw 
on the chart by means of parallel rulers lines which pass through 
the respective objects in the direction that each was observed to 
bear. As the ship's position on the chart is known to be at 
some point on each of these lines, it must be at their inter- 
section, the only point that fulfills both conditions. 

If it be possible to avoid it, objects should not be selected for 
cross bearings which subtend an angle with a boat of less than 
30 degrees, or more than 150 degrees, as in such a case a small 
error in an observed bearing gives a very large error in the 
result. For a similar reason objects near the ship should be 
taken in preference to those at a distance. 

When a third object is available, the bearing of that may be 
taken and plotted. If this line intersects at the same point as 

the other two, the navigator may 
have a reasonable assurance that he 
has fixed his position correctly. If 
it does not, it indicates an error 
somewhere. 

Two Bearings on an Object 

Another method of locating one's 
position which is commonly used 
consists of taking two bearings on 
a known object. This is the most 
useful method, and certain special 
cases arise under it which is par- 
ticularly easy of application. The 
process is to take a careful bearing 
of an object, and at the same mo- 
ment read the patent log, then after 
running a convenient distance take 
a second bearing on the same object, 
and again read the log. The differ- 
ence in readings gives the distance 

Fig. 53. Two bearings on rUt }' 

an object In big. 53, line OA, represents the 




PILOTING 



S- 



direction of a known object A at the first observation; PA is the 
direction of the same object at the second observation, and OP is 
the distance run between the two observations. The problem is 
then to determine the point P, which locates the boat's position. 
This is accomplished by finding the distance AP, which is one 
side of the triangle PAO, and is done by referring to a well- 
Sin POA 
known rule in trigonometry. It will be found AP = OPX 

, A , Sin PAO 

Doubling the Angle 

As has been said, there are certain cases of this problem which 
are exceptionally easy of application. These arise when the 
multiplier is equal to unity, and the distance run is, therefore, 

equal to the distance from the object. 
When the angular distance on the bow 
at the second bearing is twice as great 
as it was at the first bearing, the dis- 
tance of the object from the ship at the 
second bearing is equal to the run. 

In Fig. 54 a bearing is taken of the 
object A, and this bearing is found to 
be equal to an angle which we shall call 
a. The boat is then held on the same 
course until the bearing of A has an 
angle twice the size of a. A boat is then 
at a distance OP from A, and as the 
direction PA is known, the point P, 
representing the boat's actual position, 
is easily found. 

Bow and Beam Bearing 

A case where this method holds good 
is familiar to every navigator, and is 
known as the bow and beam bearing, 
where the first bearing is taken when 
the object is brought four points, or 45 
degrees from ahead, and the second 
when the object is abeam. Then the 
distance run between observations will be identical. 

In Fig. 55 the course of the boat is NE. The bearing is taken 
when the Gay Head Light appears East, which is at 45 degrees 
from the boat's course. The time is noted when this bearing 
is taken. The boat is then held on the same northeasterly course 
until Gay Head Light appears 90 degrees from the northeasterly 
course, or, in other words, bears SE. The time when the light 
bears SE is also noted. By knowing the speed of the boat in 




Fig. 54. Locating one's 
position by doubling 
the angle 



88 



PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 



iii W 



miles per hour one may readily calculate the distance from A to 
B, and the distance from B to Gay Head Light will be equal 
to AB, and thus the boat's position can be actually located. 

26^° and 45° Bearings 

Another case which is often made use of by mariners is known 
as the 26^-45 degree method. When the first bearing of an 

object is 26^4 degrees 
from ahead, and the sec- 
ond bearing of the same 
object 45 degrees from 
ahead, then the distance 
at which the object will 
be passed abeam will be 
equal to the run between 
the two bearings. This 
method at once shows the 
navigator who is about 
to pass a point how wide 
a berth he is going to 
give the off-lying dangers. 
In Fig. 56 the course 
is East. When the light 
on Bishop and Clerks 
Shoal bears 26^2 degrees 
from the boat's easterly 
course, a note is made 
of the time. The boat is then held on a course until the same 
light bears 45 degrees, and the time again noted. The distance 
AB which is run between bearings can be calculated from the 
known speed of the boat. Then the distance at which the light 
will be passed, or the distance from the light to C, will equal AB. 
The mariner will at once know that he is passing far enough away 
from the light to clear Bishop and Clerks Shoal. 

Distances on the water are deceptive and should not be relied 
upon in locating one's position except as a means of checking 
some other method. However, the motor boatman should 
practise determining distances on the water whenever possible. 
The charts give enough data as to the character of the shoreline, 
landmarks, heights of aids to navigation, etc., to be of great 
value in locating positions after one's eye becomes trained at 
determining distances. 
Allowing for a Current 

Piloting and navigating in waters where there is more or less 
current of a tidal or other nature is not quite as simple a 




Fig. 55. 



The bow and beam method 



PILOTING 



89 






</■;,.. 



"V 



proposition as it is in slack water. When courses are plotted, 
allowance must be made for the effect of a current depending 
upon whether the direction is such as to assist or retard the 
progress of the boat through the water. 

The simplest case of the current problem is when the current 
is either directly ahead or fair. In such a case the resultant 
speed of the boat becomes simply the algebraic sum of the speed 
of the boat and that of the current. That is, if a current of 3 
miles an hour is flowing in the direction in which the boat is 
sailing, the boat will have a speed of 3 miles an hour faster 
than she is capable of in slack or still water. If a 3-mile current 
is flowing in the 
apposite direction 
from that of the 
boat, the net speed 
of the boat will be 
3 miles an hour 
less than her nor- 
mal speed in still 
water. In other 
words, if the course 
happens to be for 
a distance of twen- 
ty-four nautical 
miles up a given 
river where there 
is a 4-knot current 
flowing down the 
river, and the nor- 
mal speed of the 
boat in still water 
is 8 knots, then 
her net speed will be only 4 knots, and it will require six hours 
to cover the twenty-four-mile course. When the same boat 
comes down the river her speed relative to some point on shore 
will be 12 knots, and only two hours will be required to cover 
the distance. 

With and Against a Current 

It is generally assumed that should a boat sail up a river for 
a certain distance against the current, and then turn and come 
down the river for the same distance, her average speed in 
covering the whole distance will be the same as it would in slack 
water. However, such an assumption is incorrect, as the average 
speed of a boat under such conditions would be decidedly less 




/. 



Fig. 56. 26V 2 °— 45°, bearings 



90 4 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 

than the speed she was capable of in still or° slack water. For 
example see in Fig. 57 a course of eight nautical miles up a 
river which has a 4-knot current flowing down, and a boat with 
a normal speed in still water of 8 knots. The time required for 
the boat to go up stream — that is, eight miles against a 4-knot 
current — will be two hours, and the time to return down stream 
with a 4-knot current will be only two-thirds of an hour. Thus, 
the total time required to go the sixteen miles, one-half of which 
is with the current, and the other half against the current, will 
be two and two-third hours. Dividing this time into the dis- 
tance (sixteen nautical miles), gives us a speed of 6 knots as 
the average for the entire trip. This amount is 2 knots slower 
than the normal speed of the boat in slack water. 

S=Normal speed of boat=8 knots 
C=Speed of current =4 knots 

Then time required to go 8 (nautical) miles up stream=2 hours 
And time to go 8 miles down stream = 2/3 hour 

Total time to go 16 miles (% with and %" against _ 

current) =2-2/3 hours 

16 

A=Average speed — < =6 knots 

2.67 
LXS 

Time= 

S 2 — C 2 

A+ V A 2 + 4 C 2 

Normal speed= 

2 

Fig. 57. Speed with and against the current 

Across the Current 

The next case in current navigation is when the current is 
directly across or at right angles to the boat's course. In Fig. 
58 the boat's position is assumed to be at A, and the objective 
point' it is desired -to reach is B. The distance between A and B 
is taken as sixteen miles, and the direction north and south. 
Flowing at right angles to the course AB there is assumed to be 
a 2-knot current. 

Under normal conditions it would require two hours for a 
boat having 8-knot speed to go from A to B. In crossing from 
A to B in two hours a boat would be carried down stream a 
distance of four nautical miles, inasmuch as there is a 2-knot 
current in this case, which would be operating for two hours. 
One will immediately see that should he attempt to steer in a 
southerly direction, he will, instead of reaching B, the desired 
destination, be carried down stream and will finally land at D, 



PILOTING 91 

although his compass has indicated a southerly course all of the 
time. 

To counteract the effect of the tide it is apparent that the boat 
must be headed up stream a trifle; that is, instead of holding a 
course due south, he must hold a course somewhat west of south. 

'? 
' v 

/ ! \ 5PLEP or 

2 KN °3>/ \*» \ BOAT =6 KNOTS 

<b/ oi~ • \ 

/ |~ \ 

A MILES I SMILES \ 



Fig. 58. Method of allowing: for a current across one's course 

To determine this course it is simply necessary to lay off on a 
chart to some convenient scale points A and B in a north and 
south direction from each other, and sixteen miles apart. 

Then lay off from B at right angles to the line AD a distance 
equal to four miles, which, as explained above, is the amount 
which the boat would be carried away from B in the time it 
takes her to cross from A to B. This gives us a point four miles 
uo stream, which may be called C. A line drawn from A to C 
will then be the direction which must be considered to counteract 
the effect of the current. By transferring the direction of this 
line AC to the compass rose on the chart by means of parallel 
rulers, or the course protractor, its direction may be found. In 
the case just cited the direction of the course will be found to 
be approximately SW by S. 

Oblique Currents 

If the direction of the current is other than directly ahead, 
astern or at right angles to one's course, the case is not quite 
as simple, but the course to be steered under conditions of a 
diagonal cross current may be quite readily explained by means 
of a diagram. (See Fig. 59.) 



92 



PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 



Suppose the boat is located at point A on the chart and the 
helmsman desires to lay a course to point B. The distance 
between A and B is eight miles, the direction North, the speed 
of the boat 10 miles per hour, and a tide setting NE at a rate of 
2 miles an hour. What course should he steer 
X and how long will it require to make the trip? 

Proceed as follows to some convenient scale say, 
one inch to the mile, and locate A and B in the 
north and south direction. Now from A, lay off 
a line opposite in direction to that of the current 
— that is, SW, and of a length equal to an hour's 
flow of the current — in this case 2 miles. From 
the far end of the current line draw a line CX 
parallel to the course line AB. Now find a point 
on CX which is of a distance from A equal to 
the normal hour's speed of the boat — in this case 
10 miles — 10 miles = AD. Draw a line from 
A to D, giving the direction to be steered. To find 
the time to hold this course in order to reach B, 
lay off a line from B, parallel to the current line 
$ AC which intersects the course line AD at E. 

Then a computation of the time it will take the 
boat in question, whose speed is 10 miles an hour, 
to go a distance equal to AE, or iV^ miles, will 
give the time required to make the run from 
A to B with the current as stated. 

Use of Soundings 

Soundings must not be regarded as definitely 
fixing one's position, but they afford a check 
unon other methods. Exact agreement with the 
chart may not and probably will not follow, as 
some inaccuracies may be expected, esnecially if 
the vessel is proceeding through the water. The 
height of the tide at the time the sounding is 
taken is not always a factor which can be de- 
termined with absolute accuracy. The soundings 
should agree in a general way with the chart, as 
should the nature of the bottom, and any very 
great departure should be cause for using great 
caution. This is especially true if the depth is found to be less 
than was expected. It is best to take soundings at regular 
intervals, knowing, of course, the speed at which the boat is 
going through the water. 

By marking the soundings on a piece of tracing cloth, plac- 



Al- 

for 



Fiff. 59. 
lowing 
oblique cur 
rents 



PILOTING 93 

ing them the correct distance apart according to the scale of 
the chart being used at the time, along a line representing 
the track of the vessel, and then moving the paper over the 
chart, keeping the various courses parallel to the corres- 
ponding directions on the chart, until the observed sound- 
ings agree with those laid down, the ship's position will be 
well determined. 

Identification 

Before coming within the range of a light a navigator 
should acquaint himself with its characteristics, so that when 
sighted it will be recognized. The charts, sailing directions 
and light lists give information as to the color, characteristic 
and range of visibility of the various lights. Care should be 
taken to note all of these, and compare them when the light 
is seen. If the light is of the flashing or occulting variety, 



TXKZ.V 

FLASHING 

FIXED ~&FLAStUNGr 

GROUP FLASHING 

OCCULTlNGr 

OrROUP OCCULTING 



Figr. 60. Characteristics of navigation lights 

the duration of its period should be noted. If a fixed light, 
a method that may be employed to make sure that it is not a 
vessel light, is to descend several feet immediately after sight- 
ing it, and observe if it disappears from view; a navigation 
light usually will do so excepting in misty weather, while a 
vessel's light will not. The reason for this is that the naviga- 
tion lights are as a rule sufficiently powerful to be seen at the 
farthest point to whicih the ray can reach without being in- 
terrupted by the earth's curvature. They are, therefore, seen 
at the first moment that the ray reaches an observer on a ship's 
deck, and are cut off if he lowers the eye. A vessel's light, 
on the other hand, is usually limited by its intensity, and 
does not carry beyond a distance within which it is visible at 
all heights. 

Peculiarities 

In approaching a light of varying intensity, such as fixed, 
varied by flashes, or alternating white and red, due allowance 



94 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 

must be made for the inferior brightness of the less power- 
ful part of the light. The first named light may, on account 
of distance or haze, show flashes only, and the true charac- 
teristic will not be observed until the observer comes within 
the range of ithe fixed light. An alternating red and white 
light may show an occulting white until the observer comes 
within the range of the red light. Also where there are two 
fixed lights, one white and one red, the latter may be ob- 
scured, and the station may appear to show only a fixed 
white light. 

Locating One's Position by the Bow and Beam Methods 

Miles traveled between 1st Difference in Points Between Ship's 

bearing and 90° bearing. Course and First Bearing. 

2 3 4 5 6 7 



1 409 .667 1 1.5 2.414 5.028 

2 816 1.33 2 3.0 4.828 10.056 

3 1.227 2.00 3 4.5 7.242 15.084 

4 1.636 2.67 4 6.0 9.664 20.112 

5 , 2.045 3.33 5 7.5 12.07 25.240 

6 5.454 4.00 6 9.0 14.48 30.17 

7 2.863 4.67 7 10.5 16.90 35.20 

8 3.272 5.33 8 12.0 19.31 40.224 

9 3.681 6.00 9 13.5 21.73 45.252 

10 ...'. 4.09 6.67 10 15.0 24.14 50.28 

11... 4.50 7.33 11 16.5 26.55 55.31 

12 4.91 8.00 12 18.0 28.97 60.34 

Directions: Take bearing of an object when it bears either 
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7 points over bow and note time. Hold course 
till some object is abeam and note time again. From the known 
speed of boat compute distance traveled between two bearings. 
Read down left hand column to figure corresponding to dis- 
tance traveled between bearings and then following the line 
over to the right until you reach the column with the heading 
corresponding to the first bearing and read off distance you are 
away from object when it is abeam. 



CHAPTER XII 
Navigating in Fog 

SOUND is very erratic over the water, and dependence upon 
it alone has cost many a life at sea and many a vessel. Often 
there are belts and areas over which sound does not seem to 
carry, and other phenomena also occur which change the direc- 
tion that sound travels. 

Precautions 

Mariners are cautioned that, while every endeavor will be 
made to start fog signals as soon as possible after signs of fog 
have been observed, they should not, when approaching the land 
in a fog, rely implicitly upon these fog signals, but should always 
use the lead, which in most cases will give sufficient warning. A 
fog often creeps imperceptibly towatd the land and a vessel may 
have been in it some time before it is observed at a lighthouse. 
As sound is conveyed irregularly through the atmosphere, 
mariners are strongly cautioned that they must not place de- 
pendence on judging their distance from a fog signal by the 
power of the sound. Under certain conditions of the atmos- 
phere the sound may be lost a short distance from the station, 
as there may be silent areas or zones, or the sound may carry 
much farther in one direction than in another, and these con- 
ditions may vary in the same locality within short intervals of 
time. Mariners must never assume that the fog signal is not in 
operation because they do not hear it, even when they are in 
close proximity to it. The above applies particularly to fog 
signals sounded in air, as steam or air whistles, sirens, horns, 
or ordinary bells. Attention should be given to observing a 
fog signal in positions where the noises of the ship are least 
likely to interfere with the hearing, as experience shows that 
though such a signal may not be heard from the deck or bridge 
when the engines are running it may be heard when the ship is 
stopped or from a quiet position; it may sometimes be heard 
from aloft, though not on deck. 

The rules prescribed for use in fog are also to be followed 
both day and night in mist, falling snow, or heavy rain storms. 

The velocity of sound through the air depends to some extent 
upon the temperature. At 32° F., sound travels at the rate of 
1,093 feet per second ; at 62° F., 1,126 feet per second, and at 
90° F., it has a speed of 1,155 per second. 

95 



96 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 

Fog Signal for Power Vessel 

Vessels falling in the class of steam vessels when under way 
should sound the fog signal on the whistle or siren, and sailing 
vessels and vessels towed should use the fog-horn. 

A prolonged fog blast means one of from four to six seconds' 
duration. 

The Inland Rules provide that a power vessel shall sound, when 
under way, one prolonged blast, at intervals of not more than 
one minute. 

One of the principal rules of navigation in a fog is to use the 
greatest caution at all times, keeping the speed of the boat 
moderate, and having a careful regard to existing circum- 
stances and conditions. When a fog signal of an approaching 
vessel is heard it is the duty of every captain to keep his vessel 
under absolute control, stopping if necessary until the danger 
of collision is over. 

Sailing Vessel 

A sailing vessel on the starboard tack sounds one blast of the 
fog-horn every minute and when on the port tack two blasts of 
the fog-horn in succession every minute, and when the wind is 
abaft the beam, three blasts in succession. 

Boat at Anchor 

Any vessel at anchor must ring the fog bell rapidly for a 
period of five seconds every minute. 

Vessel Towing or Being Towed 

Any vessel which is towing, being towed, engaged in work on 
a cable, or by accident or for any other reason cannot get out 
of the way of an approaching vessel must give a prolonged blast 
followed by two short blasts, at intervals not exceeding one 
minute. 

Rafts 

Rafts or other craft not specified shall sound a blast of the 
fog-horn or equivalent signal at least every minute. 

Fishing Vessels 

Fishing vessels, as drifters, trawlers, dredgers, and the line- 
fishing craft, if over 20 tons gross, must, when engaged in fish- 
ing, give a prolonged blast on the whistle or fog-horn according 
to whether they are driven by steam or sail, the blast to be im- 
mediately followed by ringing the bell. 



NAVIGATING IN FOG 97 

Boat Aground 

Any vessel which has the misfortune to run aground, or, in 
the case of a fishing vessel, gets her gear fast to a rock or other 
obstruction, is considered at anchor, and must make the signal 
necessary for such case. 

Under Way with No Way On 

A vessel under way, but with no way on, sounds two pro- 
longed blasts in rapid succession every two minutes, according 
to the International Rules. The Inland Rules make no special 
provision for a boat under way but with no way on, and the 
regular fog signal for a boat with way on is generally used in 
this case. 

Fog Stations 

The first fog signal in the United States was a cannon, in- 
stalled at Boston Light in 1719, which was fired when neces- 
sary to answer the signals of ships in thick weather. Bells 
were introduced at a comparatively early date, and at first 
were usually small, and rung by hand, to answer vessels. 
Trumpets were introduced in 1855. The original device con- 
sisted of a steel reed or tongue enclosed in a box with a large 
trumpet, the apparatus being sounded by means of com- 
pressed air produced by means of horse power. Steam 
whistles were first investigated in 1855, and were used for 
some time, but have been abandoned on account of the rapid 
deterioration of boilers, the expense of providing fresh water 
and fuel, the possibility of confusion with the whistle of a 
passing vessel, and above all, the time required to place this 
signal in operation in the event of a sudden fog. 

Sirens were first employed in 1867, compressed air being 
used generally as a sounding medium. The compressors are 
now driven by internal combustion engines. Practically all fog 
signals as now installed are provided with a governing device 
for timing the strokes of blasts. In order to guard against 
the possibility of breakdown, all modern fog signaling in- 
stallations are in duplicate, so that the second signal may be 
started at once in the event of accident to the first. 



CHAPTER XIII 
Flags and Colors 

A YACHT or other pleasure boat is known by the flags she 
flies. There is nothing that gives a poorer impression to 
those who know than to observe the misuse of flags and 
colors. A visiting yacht is immediately sized up when she 
enters the anchorage of a club where she intends to spend 
the night, or a few days, by just these little things. The 
rules for flying flags and colors are very simple, and there 
is no excuse whatsoever for breaches of such rules. 

Yachting etiquette, including the proper colors to fly, and 
their correct location, is largely governed by custom, but the 
fundamental rules in this respect were established many 
years ago before the advent of the motor boat. They are not 
in every instance well suited to the modern craft. 

Time for Flying Colors 

In general, flags are flown from 8 A. M. to sunddwn. There 
are a few exceptions to this rule regarding special flags which 
will be mentioned later. The time for colors should be taken 
from the boat of the senior officer present, except when one 
is in the vicinity of a U. S. naval vessel, or a naval station, in 
which case the boat of the senior officer takes the time for colors 
from the naval vessel or station. It is not permissible to fly 
more than one flag from the same hoist, nor a flag with a name 
spelled out thereon. This is a most terrible breach of etiquette 
for which there is no excuse. 

Early and Late Colors 

While it is a hard and fast rule that colors are made at 
8 A. M., and hauled down at sunset, yet when a boat gets 
under way from a strange anchorage earlier than 8 A. M. she 
should immediately hoist her colors provided it is daylight, 
and she should keep them flying unless she comes to anchor 
before 8 A. M., when they should be hauled down. When a 
boat enters a strange anchorage, or gets under way after 
sunset, but during daylight, she should have her colors flying, 
but should haul them down before coming to anchor. It is also 
permissible to fly the yacht ensign on festive occasions after 
sundown while a yacht is illuminated for some special purpose. 

98 




US. YACHT 
LNSIGN 



FLAGS AND COLORS 

ft 



99 




COMrtOPORE 





OWNERS 
PRIVATE 

SIGNAL 



'VICE COMMOPOKE 'REAR COMMODORE. 





CHURCH 
PENNANT 




CREWS 
MEAE, PENNANT 




OWNERS PtNNEf? 

a 



OV/UER'S ASSENT 
FV.AO 




QUARANTINE 



nmniiiarx^ — 



NICrttT PENNANT 




YCLLOW 7 BLACK. KEP " BLUE 

Fig. 61. Various flags and colors flown on motor boats 



100 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 

Shapes Used for Flags and Colors 

Three shapes are used in making up flags and colors — name- 
ly, triangular, swallow-tail and rectangular. (See Fig. 61.) 
Club flags are invariably triangular in shape. Owners' private 
signals are generally swallow-tail, and all other flags and 
colors are rectangular. National colors, as well as flag 
officers' flags, are rectangular. Of the latter three colors are 
used to distinguish the rank of the officers. Blue is used for 
the officer of the highest rank, generally commodore ; red for 
the officer next in rank, generally vice-commodore, and white 
for rear commodore. 

Special Flags 

There are certain other special flags (See Fig. 61), such as 
the church pennant, flown above the yacht ensign, or na- 
tional ensign at the stern, during divine service on board. 
The guest flag, a blue rectangular flag with a white diagonal 
bar across it, is flown from the starboard spreader from 
daylight to dark when the owner is absent and guests are on 
board. The meal flag, which is a white rectangular flag, is 
flown during meal hours of the owner in daylight from the 
starboard spreader when at anchor only. The crew's meal 
flag, which is red in color, and triangular in shape, is flown 
from the port spreader during meal hours of the crew when 
the boat is at anchor only. The absent flag, which is a blue 
rectangular flag, is flown from the starboard spreader from 
daylight to dark during the absence of the owner. 

Flags for Open Boats 

On boats of the type commonly referred to as open boats 
(See Fig. 62) having only bow and stern staffs, it is the 




Fig. 62. Colors carried on an open boat 



FLAGS AND COLORS 



101 




Fig. 63. Correct practice provides for flying the owner's private sig- 
nal forward on a boat of this type when under way 

common practice to fly the club flag from the bow staff, and 
the yacht ensign from the stern staff. However, correct 
practice (See Fig. 63) provides that this type of boat shall 
fly the owner's private signal at the bow staff, while the 
boat is under way, and the club signal when she is at anchor. 

Boat with Signal Mast 

A boat having bow and stern staffs, together with a signal 
mast amidships (See Fig. 66) flies the club signal from the 
bow staff, the owner's private signal from the mast-head at 




Fig. 64, 



It is common practice to fly the club burgee forward, and 
the ensign aft on cruisers of this type 



102 



PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 




Fig. 65. Boats having a single mast and owned by a flag officer fly 
the club burgee forward, the officer's flag at the mast-head, and 
the yacht ensign aft 

the signal mast, and the yacht ensign from the stern. If the 
owner of such a craft happens to be a flag officer of a club, 
be substitutes his officer's flag (See Fig. 65) for the private 
signal. Officers' flags are flown at all times while the boat is 
in commission, that is, during day and night, unless the 
owner is cruising with, or at an anchorage of a club of which 
he is a member, but not an officer. In such a case he should 
substitute his private signal for his officer's flag for the time 
being. Owners' private signals are flown only from 8 A. M. 
until sundown. 

Flying the Jack 

The Union Jack is flown from the bow staff when at anchor 
only, and only on Sundays and holidays, or on days of festive 
occasion. The Union Jack is never flown when the boat is under 
way under any circumstances. This is a rule which is very 
commonly broken, and, of course, does not apply to commercial 
craft. 



Boats with Two Masts 

Boats having how and stern staffs, together with two 
masts (See Fig. 66), fly their club signal from the foremast 
head, their private signal or officer's flag from the mainmast 
head, and the yacht ensign from the stern. Nothing is flown 



FLAGS AND COLORS 



103 



from the bow staff while the boat is under way. When at 
anchor on Sundays or holidays, she flies the Union Jack from 
the bow staff. 

Flags for Dinghies 

A motor dinghy belonging to some larger craft should fly 
the yacht ensign from the stern staff when the dinghy is at 
the boat's gangway or away from the boat. From the bow 
staff the dinghy should fly the owner's private signal when he is 
aboard. When the owner is not aboard the dinghy, but there is 
some club member aboard, the club signal should be flown from 
the bow staff. When there is neither owner nor club member 
aboard, no flag should be flown from the bow. Flags on dinghies 
should not be flown when the dinghy is made fast astern or to 
the boat boom or is being towed. The flag of the senior person 
present takes precedence. 

Half-Masted Colors 

On occasions of national mourning, the ensign only should 
be half-masted. On the death of an owner, his private signal, 
and the club burgee on his boat should be half-masted, as 




Fig. 66. On boats with two masts the club flag is flown at the fore, 
and the owner's private signal at the main. On boats with only- 
one mast the club burgee is flown at the bow staff, and the 
owner's private signal at the mast-head 



104 



PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 



well as the club burgee on other members' boats, both while 
the boats are at anchor and under way. 

In half-masting colors they should, if not previously hoisted, 
be mast-headed first, and then lowered to half mast. Before 
lowering colors from half mast, they should first be mast-headed, 
and then lowered. When an ensign is at half mast it should be 
mast-headed before making a salute by dipping the ensign. 

What Club Flags to Fly 

The owner should fly the club burgee of the club at which he 
is anchored, or whose fleet he is with, provided he is a member 







Fig:. 67. Day signal of a pilot vessel. 

mast-head 



A blue flag: at the main 



of that club; otherwise he may elect to fly the burgee of any 
club of which he is a member. 

In making colors at 8 A. M. the ensign should always be 
raised before other flags and colors, and in hauling down at 
sunset the ensign should be the last flag lowered. Under no 
circumstance should the ensign be allowed to touch the water 
or the deck. 



CHAPTER XIV 
Yachting Etiquette 

ALL salutes, whenever possible, should be made by dipping 
the ensign once. (See Fig. 66.) Whistles should never be 
used in saluting, and gun salutes should be avoided. 

The salute for passing boats is one dip of the ensign. Guns 
should not be fired on Sunday or between sunset and sun- 
rise for any reason whatsoever, except as signals of distress. 

The gun for colors at 8 o'clock in the morning and at sun- 
set in the evening should be fired from the yacht of the senior 
officer with the fleet, whether or not the officer is on board. 

Upon entering an anchorage, captains should salute the 
commanding officer of the anchorage by firing one gun or by 
dipping the ensign once at the moment of letting go the anchor. 

On ordinary occasions, when the commodore's yacht enters 
a harbor, his flag should be saluted by one gun or by dipping 
the ensign from the yacht of the senior officer present, and 
this salute should be acknowledged in kind by the com- 
modore. However, should the commodore be entering harbor 
to assume personal command of his squadron he should be 
saluted when he drops anchor, by the firing of one gun. or 
the dipping of the ensign by each yacht in the squadron. This 
salute should be acknowledged by one gun from the flagship. 

When a junior flag officer's yacht enters harbor, his flag 
should be saluted when he drops anchor by one gun or the 
dipping of the ensign from the yacht of the senior officer 
present, provided the latter is inferior in rank to the arriving 
flag officer; if not, the inferior arriving officer should salute 
the flag of the officer in command of the anchorage with one 
gun or a single dipping of the ensign when his yacht anchors. 

A senior officer leaving harbor should indicate that he has 
transferred his command to the officer next below him in 
rank, by firing a gun or by dipping his ensign once upon get- 
ting under way. 

When a flag officer makes an official visit between colors 
and sunset his flag should be flown in place of the club flag 
on the yacht while he is on board ; upon leaving, one gun 
should be fired after he has entered his dinghy and shoved 
off. His flag should then be lowered. 

A salute to another club is given 'by firing one gun and 
hoisting the signal of that club at the bow. After the salute 

105 



106 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 

has been returned in kind or a reasonable time for the return 
of such salute allowed, the club signal should be hauled down 
and the yacht's own club signal hoisted. In the absence of 
the signal of the club which is being saluted, the yacht's own 
club signal may be half-masted. 

In meeting under way, yachts should salute by simply 
dipping the ensign once and never by use of the whistle. 

Salutes between squadrons of different clubs, or from a 
single yacht to a squadron should be exchanged only by the 
commanding officer of the squadron. 

Persons junior in rank should enter small boats and tenders 
before their seniors and leave after them. When a motor boat 
lands alongside a float seniors should disembark first. 
International Life-Saving Signals 

1. Upon discovery of a wreck by night, the life-saving force 
will burn a red pyrotechnic light or a red rocket to signify, 
"You are seen; assistance will be given as soon as possible." 

2. A red flag waved on shore by day, or a red lieht, red 
rocket, or red Roman candle displayed by night, will signify, 
"Haul away." 

3. A white flag waved on shore by day, or a white light 
slowly swung back and forth, or a white rocket or white 
Roman candle fired by night, will signify, "Slack away." 

4. Two flags, a white and a red, waved at the same time on 
shore by day, or two lights, a white and a red, slowly swung 
at the same time, or a blue pyrotechnic light burned by night, 
will signify, "Do not attempt to land in your own boats; it is 
impossible." 

5. A man on shore beckoning by day, or two torches burn- 
ing near together by night, will signify, "This is the best 
place to land." 

Status of the Yacht Ensign 

The United States yacht ensign was authorized by an Act 
of Congress about 1849. It is required by law that the yacht 
ensign be flown on documented yachts of over 15 tons' 
burden as a signal to indicate that the boat flying it is a 
pleasure boat. Undoubtedly it never was the intention of 
the original law providing the yacht ensign that it should be 
used at a substitute for the American national ensign. How- 
ever, custom has made it the only American flag now flown 
on yachts. 

Undocumented boats of less than 15 tons' burden are not 
required by law to fly any particular ensign or national flag. 
Such boats may fly whatever ensign they see fit. 



CHAPTER XV 

Signaling 

THE International Code of Signals consists of twenty-six 
flags (See Fig. 68) — one for each letter of the alphabet — 
and a code pennant. 

One-flag signals, B, C, D, L, P, Q, S, hoisted singly have 
a special significance. The code flag over each indicates that they 
are signals of a general nature of frequent use. Signal flags 
hoisted singly after numeral-signal No. 1, refer to the numerical 
table, as do also two-flag signals with the code flag under them. 

Two-flag signals without code flag are urgent and im- 
portant signals ; with the code flag over them they are latitude, 
longitude, time, barometer and thermometer signals. 

Three-flag signals express points of the compass, money, 
weights and measures, and other signals required for com- 
munication. 

Four-flag signals with a burgee (A or B) uppermost are 
geographical signals; with C uppermost they are spelling or 
vocabulary signals ; with G uppermost they are the names of 
men-of-war ; with a square flag uppermost they are names of 
merchant vessels and are not in the signal book. 

How to Make a Signal 

In the following instructions the ship making the signal is 
called A ; the ship signaled to is called B. 

1. Ship A wishing to make a signal hoists her ensign with 
the code flag under it. 

2. If more than one vessel or signal station is in sight, and 
the signal is intended for a particular vessel or signal station, 
ship A should indicate which vessel or signal station she is 
addressing by making the distinguishing signal (i. e., the 
signal letters) of the vessel or station with which she desires to 
communicate. 

3. If the distinguishing signal is not known, ship A should 
make use of one of the signals DI to DQ. 

4. When ship A has been answered by the vessel she is 
addressing (see paragraph 9), she proceeds with the signal 
which she desires to make, first hauling down her code flag, 
if it is required for making the signal. 

5. Signals should always be hoisted where they can best 
be seen, and not necessarily at the mast-head. 

107 



108 



PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 



6. Each hoist should be kept flying until ship B hoists her 
answering pennant "Close-up." (See paragraph 4.) 

7. When ship A has finished signaling she hauls down her 
ensign and her code flag if the latter has not already been 
hauled down. (See paragraph 4.) 




Fig. 68. The International Code flags (See page 99 for colors) 



SIGNALING 109 

8. When it is desired to make a signal, it should be looked 
up in the general vocabulary, which is the index to the Signal 
Book. 

How to Answer a Signal 

9. Ship B (the ship signaled to) on seeing the signal made 
by ship A, hoists her answering pennant at the "dip." 

(A flag is at the "dip" when it is hoisted about two-thirds 
of the way up — that is, some little distance below where it 
should be when hoisted "close-up." 

The answering pennant should always be hoisted where it can 
best be seen. 

10. When A's hoist has been taken in, looked up in the Signal 
Book and is understood, B hoists her answering pennant "close- 
up" and keeps it there until A hauls her hoist down. 

11. B then lowers her answering pennant to the "dip," and 
waits for the next hoist. 

12. If the flags in A's hoist cannot be made out, or if, when 
the flags are made out, the purport of the signal is not 
understood, B keeps her answering pennant at the "dip" and 
hoists the signal OWL or WCX, or such other signal as may 
meet the case, and when A has repeated or rectified her signal, 
and B thoroughly understands it, B hoists her answering pen- 
nant "close-up." 

Semaphore Signal 

Signals may also be transmitted by what is known as the 
two-arm semaphore method, using either hand flags or a ma- 
chine for the purpose. The hand flags are from 12 to 15 inches 
square. They are blue, with a white square, or red and yellow 
diagonally. The one to be used depends upon the background. 
They are attached to a light wooden staff about two feet in 
length. 

Fig. 69 shows the semaphore system of making signals by 
means of hand flags. This system is the most rapid method of 
sending spelled out messages. It is, however, very liable to 
error if the motions are slurred over or run together in an 
attempt to make speed. 

Fig. 70 illustrates the semaphore machine which sends the 
signals in exactly the same way as indicated by the previous 
illustration, in which hand flags were substituted for the arms of 
the machine. The positions of the two methods are exactly the 
same. Both arms are moved rapidly and symmetrically, but 
there should be a perceptible pause at the end of each letter 
before making the motions for the next letter, and care must be 



110 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 



THE SEMAPHORE SYSTEM. 



HAND 
FLAGS 



HAND 
FLAGS 



HAND 
FLAGS 



HAND 
FLAGS 




Error 








Exe- 

cBte 






Nega- 
tive 



Pre- 
para- 
tory 







ling 



Inter- 
roga- 
tory 



Affirm- 
ative 









Ac- 
knowl- 









Desig- 
nator 



Fig. 69. Semaphore system of making: signal by means of hand flags 



SIGNALING 



111 



taken with the hand flags to hold the staffs so as to form a 
prolongation of the arms. 

Wigwag and Blinker Light Signaling 

The dot and dash code (Fig. 71), comprising alphabets and 
numerals of the International Morse Code, is another method of 
signaling, frequently used on shipboard. In this system, which is 
known as the wigwag, messages are spelled out. There is one 
position with three motions. "Position" is with the flag held 
vertically, the signal hand facing squarely towards the station 
with which it is desired to communicate. In the first motion 
(dot) the flag is waved to the right of the sender, embracing 



BnuFtKNu Biom. 



OoTiunia Bum. 




/ 



^r^K 



=y 



1 



y 



STUVWXYZ 



J 



Figr. 70. The semaphore machine system of signaling 



an arc of 90 degrees, starting from the vertical, and returning 
to it, and made in a plane at right angles to the line connecting 
the two stations. The second motion (dash) is a similar motion 
to the left of the sender. To make the third motion, "Front," 



112 



PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 



which is used for separating words, sentences, etc., the flag is 
waved downward directly in front of the sender, and instantly 
returned to "Position." 

It is important to obtain a good back- 
ground, and to select a color of flag 
which will afford the most marked con- 
trast with the background; to this end 
the red or the white flag shall be used 
as found best from the standpoint of 
visibility. When signaling to a con- 
siderable distance with a hand torch, 
electric portable, or hand lantern, a 
foot-light should be used as a point of 
reference to the motions ; otherwise the 
methods are the same as for the hand 
flag. With an oil hand lantern a varia- 
tion is permissible, as the lantern is more 
conveniently swung out and upward by 
hand from the footlight for "dot" and 
"dash" and raised vertically for "front." 

To call a station, face it and make its 
call ; if necessary to attract attention, 
wave the flag (or torch), making the 
call at frequent intervals. The station 
called makes "acknowledgment" ; the 
sending station then makes "acknowledg- 
ment" and proceeds with the message. 
At night each boat called shall acknowl- 
edge by making her own call letter; the 
calling boat then makes her own call 
letter, which the receiving boats repeat; 
the calling boat then makes acknowledg- 
ment and proceeds with the message. 

A day wigwag message for the entire 
force or for a group, flotilla, squadron 
division, or boat is indicated by the 
display, half yardarm high, of the cornet 
of the proper call. This is. acknowl- 
edged by the boat or boats called hoist- 
ing the answering pennant half way; 
when all boats have thus answered, the 
message is proceeded with. At the end 
of a message sent as prescribed, the flag- 
ship hoists the call or the cornet, as the 
case may be, close up to the yardarm, 



A 

B 

C 

D 

£ 

F 

G 

H 

I. 

J 

K 

L 

M 

N 
O 
P 

Q 

R 

S 

T 

U 

V 

W 

X 



Fis:. 71. The Interna- 
tional Morse Code 
for wis: wagr and 
wireless 



SIGNALING 



112 



whereupon, if the message is understood, the receiving ship or 
ships run the answering pennant close up to the yardarm. The 
hauling down of the call or cornet by the flagship is the ac- 
knowledgment of the answers, and the receiving boat or boats 
then haul down their answering pennants. 

If, in the course of a signal, the sender discovers that he 
has made an error, he should make the characters corresponding 
to AA "Front," after which he proceeds with the signal, be- 



GENERAL ALPHABETICAL TABLE FOR MAKING THE 

INTERNATIONAL CODE SIGNALS BT MEANS 

OF DISTANT SIGNALS BY SHAPES. 


"pEErASATivt, Anwnm,' \M 
or ■ Stop.-' *ft«r *.b i \ 

CVB.,.1,1. rffMJ. j 1 


irnimViou aionil ♦' 


M.-fc 


-.ft 


;:.lt 


■T.fe 


•i,fc 


•■:.| 


-Ml 


.J,;fc 


;■■:■. II 


•M 


H 


;',ft 


SPECIAL 3IONA 


l> 

1 t ' 


I» 


,::.! 


1* 


T 


If 


CoJ* FU* ]» v 

.T. IV 


1 1 4 


II 


■".& 


.:.* 


« * t JIT' 


.:.M 


•:.| 


.1.(1 


Nanrtal fit* 

.T.ft 


Q 

1 < t 


ft 


.:.fr 


.T.ft 


...ft 

,* making austral 


•"■!* 


,:.fc 


■-v.fr- 



Fig. 72. The distance signals 

ginning with the word in which the error occurred. If, in the 
course of a signal addressed to a single boat, the receiver does 
not understand a word, character, or display, he should "break 
in" with the characters corresponding to "repeat last word"; 
or, to have a whole message repeated he should make the dis- 
plays which signify "repeat last message." In the case of a 
message addressed to several boats, an individual boat failing 
to understand a word shall not break in, but shall continue to 



114 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 

read as much of the message as possible, and after the whole 
message has been sent shall request the next boat, or the div- 
ision commander, or the commander in chief to repeat the 
missing portion. 

Distance Signals 

When in consequence of distance or atmospheric conditions it 
is impossible to distinguish the color or flags of the International 
Code, there is provided an alternative method of signaling, 
known as distance signals. (See Fig. 72.) There are three 
methods of making distance signals, as follows : 

1. By cones, balls and drums. 

2. By balls, square flags, pennants, and wafts. 

3. By the Fixed Coast Semaphore. 

In calm weather, or when the wind is blowing from and 
towards the observer, it is very difficult to distinguish with 
certainty any signal which depends on color or flags. The flags 
when used with shapes are also apt in calm weather to hide one 
of the balls or other shapes which would prevent the signal from 
being understood. Therefore, the system of cones, balls and 
drums is preferable to that of flags, pennants and wafts. 



CHAPTER XVI 
Miscellaneous Signals 

THESE signals (Fig. 73) indicate the weather forecasts for 
twenty-four hours commencing at 8 A. M. 
When displayed on poles the signal should be arranged to 
read downward; when displayed from horizontal supports, a 
small streamer should be attached to indicate the point from 
which the signals are to be read. 

The morning forecasts (i. e., those issued from the A. M. 
reports) only, are utilized for the display of weather signals, 



NO 1. 




NO- 2 




A/O.3 




1 CL£AKOIlFAiRW£ATHEIi H' RAW OR $NOM ' 'LOCAL RAWS} 

wo. 4. M?. r 



► 




T£MPe/tATUR£ FLACr COLP WAV£ 

"Fig. 73. Weather signals 



and the flags displayed represent only the forecast applicable 
to the twenty-four hours beginning at 8 P. M. of the day the 
flags are hoisted. 

If more than one kind of weather is predicted for the period 
from 8 P. M. to 8 P. M., the conditions first named in the fore- 
cast are represented by the uppermost weather flag in a vertical 
hoist, or by the weather flag nearest to the small streamer in- 
dicating the point, in a horizontal hoist, from which the signals 
are to be read. If two temperature forecasts are made for this 
period, the first-named only is represented by the temperature 
flag in its proper position. When the regular forecast contains 
warnings of a cold wave, the cold-wave signal is displayed alone. 

115 



116. PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 

and flags representing the weather element are never displayed 
on the same staff with the cold-wave signal. 

If the forecasts contain a prediction, "moderate cold wave," 
"decidedly lower temperature," "much colder," etc., the cold- 
wave flag is not displayed, but the temperature flag is hoisted 
below the proper weather flag. 

Flags are invariably lowered at sunset of the day the hoist is 
made, and no flags are displayed on the following day until the 
receipt of the next succeeding morning forecast. 

The weather signal flags used are as follows (See Fig. 73) : 

Flag No. 1. Square white flag. 

Flag No. 2. Square blue flag. 

Flag No. 3. Square flag, white on upper half, and blue on 

lower half. 
Flag No. 4. Triangular black flag. 

Flag No. 5. Square white flag with black square in center. 
Number 1 indicates clear or fair weather. Number 2 indicates 
rain or snow. Number 3 indicates that local rains or showers 
will occur, and that the rainfall will not be general. Number 4 
always refers to temperature; when placed above numbers 1, 
2 or 3, it indicates warmer weather ; when placed below 
numbers 1, 2 or 3, it indicates colder weather ; when not dis- 
played, the indications are that the temperature will remain 
stationary, or that the change in temperature will not vary 
more than four degrees from the temperature of; the same 
hour of the preceding day from March to October, inclusive, 
and not more than six degrees for the remaining months of the 
year. Number 5 indicates the approach of a sudden and de- 
cided fall in temperature. When number 5 is displayed, number 
4 is always omitted. Examples : 

Nos. 1 and 4, "Fair weather. Colder." 
Nos. 4 and 2, "Warmer, Rain or Snow." 

Nos. 4, 1, and 2, "Warmer, fair weather, followed by rain or 
snow." 
Nos. 1 and 5, "Fair weather. Cold wave." 

Distress Signals — In the Daytime 

1. A gun or other explosive signal fired at intervals of about 
a minute. 

2. The international code signal of distress, NC. 

3. The distance signal consisting of a square flag, having 
either above or below it a ball, or something resembling a ball. 

4. The continuous sounding of any fog-signaling apparatus. 

5. The national ensign, hoisted upside down. 



MISCELLANEOUS SIGNALS 11? 

Distress Signals — At Night 

1. A gun or other explosive signal fired at intervals of about 
a minute. 

2. Flames on the vessel (as from a burning tar barrel, oil 
barrel, etc.). 

3. Rockets or shells, throwing stars of any color, etc., fired 
one at a time at short intervals. 

4. The continuous sounding of any fog-signaling apparatus. 

Signals for a Pilot 

A pilot may be obtained by displaying any of the following 
signals : 

1. The International Code pilot signal indicated bv PT. 

2. The International Code flag S, with or without the code 
pennant over it. 

3. The distance signal consisting of a cone, point upward 
having above it two balls or shapes resembling balls. 

4. The Jack, hoisted at the fore. 

At night — 1. A blue pyrotechnic light burned every fifteen 
minutes. 

2. A bright white light flashed at frequent intervals just 
a little above the deck. 

To signal for a towboat set the ensign in the main rigging 
above the bulwarks for about a minute at a time. 

Storm Signals 

The warnings adopted by the United States Weather 
Bureau for announcing the approach of wind storms are as 
follows: (See Fig. 74.) 

The storm warning (a red flag, eight feet square, with black 
center, three feet square), indicates that a storm of marked 
violence is expected. This flag is never used alone. 

A red pennant (eight feet hoist and fifteen feet fly), dis- 
played with the flags, indicates easterly winds, that is, from 
the northeast to south, inclusive, and that the storm center 
is approaching. 

A white pennant (eight feet hoist and fifteen feet fly), dis- 
played with the flags, indicates westerly winds, that is, from 
north to southwest, inclusive, and that the center has passed. 

If the red pennant is hoisted above the storm warning, winds 
are expected from the northeast quadrant; when below, from 
the southeast quadrant. 

If the white pennant is hoisted above the storm warning, winds 



118 



PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 



are expected from the northwest quadrant; when below, from 
the southwest quadrant. 

Night storm warnings — By night a red light will indicate 
easterly winds; a white above red light will indicate westerly 
winds. 

The hurricane warning (two storm warning flags, red with 
black centers, displayed one above the other) indicates the 
expected approach of a tropical hurricane or of an extremely 
severe and dangerous storm. 

No hurricane warnings are displayed at night. 

A yellow flag with white center is a precautionary signal. 

Signals should be read from the top of the staff downward. 




£ASTfKLY WWDS STORM SlCrNAL CAVTioNAgY S/O/val W£ST£KLY W/NDS 




Fig. 74. The storm and wind signals 



CHAPTER XVII 
Boat Handling Under Various Sea Conditions 

(By E. K. Roden) 

WITH the advent of the motor boat as an important 
acquisition to our national defense, motor boating can 
no longer be looked upon merely as an exhilarative 
pastime. Its affiliation with military and naval forces guard- 
ing our extensive coast lines has placed motor boating upon 
a basis where responsibility and serious work go first, with 
sport and pleasure as a secondary consideration. This being 
the case, it becomes the duty of owners and operators of 
motor craft enrolled for defense service to acquire and culti- 
vate not only a thorough understanding of the handling 
of the boat and engine, but also a knowledge of various 
wrinkles which in time of actual service may prove of value. 
The following suggestions apply in particular to a motor unit 
assigned to scout duty which through unforeseen exigencies 
may find itself in strange waters and, therefore, will have 
to rely upon the skill and resourcefulness of its commander 
to carry out his scout work and at the same time avoid the 
pitfalls likely to be encountered in navigating unknown 
sections of the coast 

Indications of Shallow Water 

Upon approaching a shoal spot in the water, the attention 
of an observer will be attracted either by a rise in the height 
of the waves, with a tendency to curve over and break, or 
by their taking on a troubled, agitated appearance, in marked 
contrast to the waves in deeper water. The extent of the 
irregular water will, in most cases, clearly define the limits 
of the shoal, and, when traversing shoal places, the deepest 
water will always <be found where the waves are of normal 
size and most regular appearance. They will be clearly dis- 
tinguished from either the lifting kind, which are inclined 
to topple and 'break, or the smaller jumbled type. At times, 
the water over the shoal will be smooth and the water in 
the channels ruffled; this is particularly likely to be the case 
when the shoal bordering the channel has a growth of weeds 
reaching nearly to the surface. 

If in strange waters and a line of ripples stretches across 
the course, the ripples should be approached with caution. 
The line may be caused by the changing of the tide, or it 

119 



120 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 

may be a reef or bar fairly close below the surface. These 
small ripples are often seen along the edge of shoals when 
the surrounding water is smooth, particularly when the out- 
side water is deep; they are caused by the flow of the tide 
being shunted off by the shoal. During a strong breeze, 
when traversing a shoal having from 3 to 20 feet depth of 
water over it, the deeper parts may invariably be dis- 
tinguished by watching for the heavier, more regular waves, 
while the shallow spots of the shoal are indicated by choppy, 
breaking waves. 

Crossing a Bar 

Necessity may at times compel the passage of a boat 
through a reef or a bar, over which a strong sea is running. 
In such cases it is well to run slowly along the reef at a 
moderate distance and search carefully for regular waves. 
If there is an opening, or channel, through, it will show 
water distinctly different from that over the rest. In such 
deep places, the water will remain without breaking until 
the sea has attained such violence that even the deep places 
have practically become shoals. The passage through com- 
paratively unknown reefs and bars when heavy weather 
prevails should not be attempted except by the most ex- 
perienced men. The sea may look smooth and regular at 
some distance off the bar, but on approaching, the conditions 
may be such as to require an intuitive skill at the helm to 
get the boat safely through. 

Wave Motion 

To run smoothly, a wave requires a depth of water as 
great as is the distance from its own trough to trough. If 
that distance is 15 feet, the wave requires 15 feet of water 
to roll in or it will begin to rise in height and form a crest, 
this being the result of the friction of the wave motion on the 
bottom. It is the wave motion that travels, not the water, 
as can be readily seen by dropping a colored liquid of any 
kind into the sea — the color will remain stationary, or 
nearly so, while the motion of the wave will continue to 
advance. 

When running along a beach at night, the beach being 
free from rocks, the line of safety can be felt by the lifting of 
the boat ; if too close in, a sharp lift will be felt when a sea 
passes under — the motion being distinctly different from that 
felt when the boat was in deep water — and is a- sure indica- 
tion that the boat is within the line where the wave begins to 



SEA CONDITIONS 121 

top the breaker. In a heavy onshore wind, the best travel- 
ing will be found a mile or more offshore. The reason is 
that heavy seas on striking a beach or a reef give a strong 
recoil that causes a series of opposing waves which, meeting 
those coming in, produce rough, irregular water. 

Occasionally there will be seen a solitary lift or leap of 
the water where there are no other evidences of disturbances; 
this is generally caused by a small mound or boulder arising 
at that spot from the bottom. 

Tide Rips 

Tide rips are the result of strong currents. With no visible 
signs of disturbance and the sea smooth all about them 
waves of this character will rear and tumble. They are 
clearly distinct from anything about them, and do not take 
one unawares. Almost invariably they have white foaming 
crests and roar in an unmistakable manner. Even in a 
white-cap breeze, they are clearly whiter than anything about 
them, and are so definitely marked that one can sail down 
their edges and admire the wildness of the scene. The wave 
motion in them is short and steep. When wind increases 
their turbulence, none but the staunchest of boats and best 
of helmsmen should attempt to enter the turmoil. When 
compelled to encounter them in bad weather the boat should 
be kept to the edges, where the water is always deep. If 
in the rip and it is running strong (which is generally the 
case during four hours out of the six), the boat should be 
kept head-to; she will lift and pound badly, and perhaps get 
strained, but that is better than the risk of rolling over. At 
the slack of the tide the rips do not exist. 

Head Sea 

During a hard blow, the sea will be found to present waves 
that are regular in general, but interspersed with seas that 
are too sharp for comfort for a boat of light construction. 
If going to windward, many of these seas will compel one 
to head into them; then will come a lift and, if the boat 
has not a sharp V-section forward, a smashing fall down the 
back of the wave. These falls pound the bottom of a boat 
so severely that it is not good practice to permit many of 
them. They are avoided by turning the boat a trifle off the 
wave, though if the swell is steep enough to throw the boat 
there is no help but to take it head on. Should swinging her 
off, to give more bearing surface, take the boat too much 
off the course, the remedy is to take the seas on one bow 



122 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 

for a stated time and then on the other for the same interval, 
the result being an equalization of the course. 

Following Sea 

In running with a following sea the helmsman meets his 
hardest task. When a sea passes under the boat, lifting the 
bow, the next wave comes under the stern and begins to lift, 
and when the stern has been raised to a greater height than 
the bow, the latter starts to root — which means that the 
boat is "down by the head," and does not respond to the 
rudder. This is the anxious moment for the helmsman, as 
he waits for the feeling coming with a submerged rudder that 
indicates the direction in which the bow is going to turn. 
So long as the rudder is out of water it should be kept steady- 
by the wheel, and the instant the feeling comes that it is 
submerged the helm should be turned, gently at first, then 
with all the strength necessary to counteract the sheer; then 
the wheel should be allowed to turn back freely as the boa\ 
balances on the forward drive on the face of the wave. 

During the maneuvering the bow of the boat may root 
until two or three feet of it is buried in the sea ahead. It 
will not do to let this take place, for, as explained previously, 
the water is not moving, and the boat is plowing into it, 
and while doing so the stern may be lifted so high that she 
is deprived of her bearing, and will either dive or roll over. 
This is what occurs with boats trying to enter a surf or, 
when the weather is heavy from the seawards, to gain access 
to a harbor having a bar before the entrance. The remedy 
is the same in either case, and is the one commonly em- 
ployed by life savers in making a landing; that is to tow a 
drag or sea anchor. If without one, any bulky article at- 
tached to a stout line may be dropped over the stern and 
towed. The resistance offered will help materially in check- 
ing the tendency to root. 

With some boats and in some seas it will be found that 
the bow is rooting and the stern being boarded by the follow- 
ing waves. This is a bad case. All the, movable weight 
(passengers, for instance) must then be placed amidships 
to lighten the ends and the bow swung a very little from 
a fore-and-aft bearing on the seas. If the boat is of the 
open-cockpit type, canvas should be fastened over the after 
end of the cockpit. This is a case in which oil might help 
some : the boat is run slowly and the oil put out from any 
part of the boat that will cause the slick to be spread by the 
time it reaches the stern. The burying of the bow and stern 



SEA CONDITIONS 123 

of a boat with fine sharp ends is of little consequence, as- 
the lack of bearing surface in such a boat makes this a con- 
dition to be expected, but the sea has not hold enough on 
either end to do harm, and the end will rise as quickly as 
the wave passes by. 

Beam Sea 

In a beam sea, conditions are such as to require the utmost 
attention on the part of the helmsman. The boat is traveling 
in the trough and if an oncoming sea is a bad one, one must 
decide instantly whether to run or head into it. The present 
position of the boat generally governs the maneuver. If 
the boat has just recovered from a lurch and the bow is too 
far to windward to give her time to run off, she must of 
necessity be thrown head in. If she is too far off the wind 
to give her time to be swung up she must be sent to leeward. 
Most of the time the shape of the seas is such that the boat 
can be held to the course; this gives the helmsman the choice 
of the maneuver. 

Lee Shore 

When running along a lee shore for any considerable dis- 
tance the scend of the sea will steadily set the boat toward 
the beach. There is seldom a sea so heavy that there are no 
smooth, well-rounded waves mingled with the rough ones, 
and in every smooth the boat should be sent on the course 
as far as she will go. Turn her to windward in the rough 
seas, and in some of the smooth ones if necessary, but in 
no case let her fall to leeward. 

During a blow a boat should pass to the lee side of islands 
and shoals where it is posssible to do so : ; no shoal is so 
deep that it has no influence in smoothing the sea. A shoal 
near the surface will stop the waves altogether and leave 
only the wind for the boat to contend with. 

Fog 

If caught in a fog without a compass or with the compass 
out of order, the best way in which to prevent a boat from 
losing her direction is to take guidance from the run of the 
waves. Thus, if the waves were coming toward the star- 
board bow when the fog set in, they should be kept coming 
from the same quarter. 

By trailing a line over the istern one may keep running 
straight ahead, and not in a circle as is often done. The 
longer the line the better, as with one of good length, any 
swerving from a straight course will show at once. Verifica- 



124 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 

tion of the steering in a fog or rain may be gained by watch- 
ing the slant of rain drops or drizzle. 

Reflections of Rock and Sand 

A majority of the rocks and shoals within range of the 
cruising motor boat are usually unmarked by buoys of any 
kind, but most of such obstructions betray their presence 
by reflecting their colors to the surface of the waters im- 
mediately surrounding them. The shade, or density, of the 
color will vary with the different phases of the day, from 
clear distinctiveness to an indefinable something, yet to the 
practised eye the hues may be distinguished and used with 
advantage. It well repays the operator of a motor boat to 
cultivate the faculty of observing the different shades of 
the water, as it gives a confidence in running that adds to 
the comfort and interest, and in combination with a judicious 
use of the lead line, enables him to pick his wav with a 
degree of certainty into harbors and inlets that are new to 
him. This applies more particularly to fairly clear waters 
and not such as are found in or close to the harbors of large 
cities. A mud bottom is not as good as a sand or rock 
bottom, but even over mud there will be different shades of 
color in the shallows and the channels. 

When running in open waters, a faint line may appear at 
some distance ahead and commence to loom. On a near 
approach the entrance to a small harbor or inlet may be 
looked for, though the coast at first appears to be one un- 
broken line. As the boat draws nearer dark spots of brown 
may be seen at some places, while at others grayish or white 
shadows prevail; the former indicate deep and the latter 
shallow water. When approaching to four or five hundred 
feet, close observation will possibly show water of a decided 
greenish tint and water having a certain placid or slick 
whitish appearance. The latter color should be avoided and 
the deeper green followed, and then with a good lookout in 
the bow it will be perfectly safe to proceed slowly into the 
place as far as it is desired. The higher up the lookout is 
placed, the better he will see the bottom and select the route 
to be taken. 

The entrance to an all-sand harbor over a bar may be 
made by observing the difference in color when arriving at 
the 18-foot depth, for the break is clearly visible. When 
passing into the 12-foot depth, it will be well to slow down 
to half speed. Here the darker green veins of water should 
be chosen. 



125 



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Fig. 75. Suggestions for motor boat log book sheet 



CHAPTER XVIII 
Steering 

Propeller Working Ahead (Right Hand Propeller) 

THE water which is drawn into the propeller from forward 
of it in a line parallel to the keel has no appreciable effect 
upon steering. However, water is thrown out from the after 
side of the propeller, more or less radially from the blades. 
This rotary current set up strikes against the rudder to a 
greater or less extent (depending upon the position of the 
rudder and amount of helm given it) and tends to throw 
the stern sideways. The upper blades, which are moving 
from port to starboard, throw their water against the upper 
portion of the rudder, and the lower blades drive their cur- 
rent against the lower starboard side of the rudder. If 
the lower part of the rudder is greater in area (relative to 
the center of motion of the water thrown radially away from 
the after side of the propeller) the resultant effect will be 
to throw the stern to port. If the upper area is greater, then 
the stern will be thrown to starboard. Thus it will be seen 
that the position and size of the rudder relative to that of 
the propeller will have a certain influence upon steering. 

Propeller Working Astern 

Water is drawn in from astern and forced out forward. 
The water forced out is thrown against the boat's underbody 
— that from the Upper blades against the starboard side, and 
that from the lower against the port side. As the upper 
blades are working more effectively in this case, it follows 
that in backing, a boat's stern will be thrown to port. 

Sidewise Force of Propellers 

There is a certain sidewise force exerted by a propeller. 
The upper blades moving from port to starboard tend to 
force the stern to port, and the lower blades working from 
starboard to port have a tendency to throw the stern to 
starboard. As the lower blades are working in water of 
greater density, their action will have the greatest effect, with 
the result that the boat's stern will be thrown to starboard. 
In backing, the stern will be thrown to port. 

This resultant action of the sidewise force of the propeller 
is quite pronounced in motor craft, especially when the upper 
blades are near the surface. Most motor boats have a 

126 



STEERING 127 

tendency to work off their course to port for this reason. 
The effect is greatest when the boat is starting from rest, 
as then the tendency to "churn" the water is, maximum 
when the boat's speed is minimum. For this reason it is 
essential and desirable to turn to port when starting up if 
it is desired to change the boat's course quickly. Many 
motor boats wjll not turn to starboard until they have con- 
siderable way on, while they will turn very readily to port. 

Wake Current 

The wake current, or that drawn along by the boat, is 
greatest at the stern of the boat at or near the surface of the 
water. It rapidly diminishes below the surface. The wake 
current is maximum at maximum speed of the boat, being 
zero when the boat is at rest. The influence of wake current, 
which has the greatest effect upon the upper blades, is to 
neutralize the greater sidewise effect of the lower blades 
when the boat speed is maximum. 

Effect of the Propeller Upon Steering 
1 1. Boat and Propeller Going Ahead 

Here the rudder is the controlling factor for reasons ex- 
plained, although the average motor boat tends to turn 
better to port. If the helm is put hard over when the boat 
is going full speed ahead, the first effect will be to throw 
the whole boat to the side opposite to which it is desired to 
go, the stern going off the most and not returning to the 
line of the original path of the boat until the bow has turned 
several points. The boat turns with increasing rapidity 
until she reaches a point from which she turns on a path 
which is practically a circle. As the boat swings around this 
circle, her bow is pointed inward, and her stern outward. 
The exact point on her keel which moves around on a true 
circle depends largely on the boat's speed— the faster the 
boat is, the nearer the bow will this point be. 

The speed at which a boat is moving at the time her helm 
is put over has little effect upon her turning space, although 
the time of turning will be less with the faster boats. If the 
helm is put over to clear a stationary object, the speed will 
not be a factor in determining whether the object will be 
cleared or hit. However, speed will be a factor in the force 
with which the object is hit. 

Generally speaking, a boat may be turned through eight 
points with a fore and aft "advance" of four boat lengths. 

It is generally considered more safe to avoid a stationary ob- 



128 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 

ject close ahead by means of reversing than by attempting to 
clear it by putting the helm hard over. The safest method 
is to put the helm hard to port, and, as soon as the bow bgeins 
to swing, to reverse, immediately putting the helm hard to star- 
board. 

2. Boat and Propeller Going Astern 

A. Boat Just Beginning to Back: 

I. Helm amidship. Result: Stern moves to port. 

II. Helm a-starboard. Result: Stern moves strongly 
to port. 

III. Helm a-port. Result: Stern moves slowly to port. 

B. Boat Gathers Speed Astern: 

I. Helm amidship. Result: Stern moves to port. 

II. Helm a-starboard. Result: Stern moves rapidly to port. 

III. Helm a-port. Result: Stern moves slightly to 
starboard. 

3. Boat Going Ahead, Propeller Astern 

I. Helm amidships. Result: Bow swings to starboard. 

II. Helm hard to starboard. Result: Bow swings to 
starboard. 

III. Helm hard to port. Result: Uncertain. 

If the boat has begun to swing from a hard over helm 
before the propeller is reversed, she will generally continue 
to swing when the propeller is reversed. If the propeller is 
reversed before the helm is put over, the above results will 
follow. One may be sure of results by first putting the helm 
hard over, then reversing the propeller, then reversing the helm ; 
for example: When going ahead, if it is desired to throw 
the bow to 

Port Starboard 

Stop propeller Stop propeller 

Starboard helm Port helm 

Reverse propeller Reverse propeller 

Port helm Starboard helm 

4. Boat Going Astern, Propeller Ahead 

I. Helm amidships. Result: Uncertain. 

II. Helm to port. Result: Stern swings decidedly to 

port. 

III. Helm to starboard. Rseult: Stern will probably 

swing to starboard. 

Note: To steer a straight course when backing have helm to port. 



STEERING 



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130 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 

Recapitulation 

From the foregoing it will be seen that it is practically im- 
possible to make a boat's bow swing to port when backing. 
Therefore, in maneuvering from a position at rest it is best 
to plan to turn to starboard as follows: 

1. Helm hard a-port. 

2. Go ahead with ftropeller. 

3. Go ahead as far as safe, swinging sharply to starboard, 

gaining as much headway as possible. 

4. Reverse propeller full speed. 

5. Immediately shift helm to hard a-starboard. 

6. Back as far as possible at speed. 

7. Propeller full speed ahead. 

8. Put helm hard a-port at once. 

If it is necessary to turn to port, proceed as follows: 

1. Helm hard a-starboard. 

2. Go ahead full speed until boat gathers good speed. 

3. Stop propeller and let boat run. 

4. Reverse propeller full speed. 

5. Port helm immediately. 

6. Run astern as far as possible. 

7. Go ahead full speed and — 

8. Put helm a-starboard immediately. 

On boats of light draft, the whole conditions described 
above may be reversed, especially when the propeller is 
poorly or incompletely submerged. 



CHAPTER XIX 



Boat Equipment, Provisions and Supplies 



Boat 

Extra heavy anchor 
Small anchor 
Sea anchor 
Anchor chain 

Emergency sail, mast and tackle 
Emergency hand tiller 
Supply of different sizes of small 
line, marline and other cordage 
200 feet one-inch (diameter) line 
Bow and stern lines 
Line for halyards 
Supply of canvas or tarpaulin 
Bow, stern and running lights 
Riding light 
Lanterns 



Gear 

Fog bell 

Whistle 

Fog-horn 

Bow and stern staffs 

Life preservers 

Ring buoys 

Fenders 

Fire extinguisher 

Bilge pump 

Extra oars and oarlocks for 

dinghy 
Broom, mop and bucket 
Boat hook 
Cushions 



Provisions 



Matches 

Flour 

Sugar 

Pancake flour (self-raising) 

Baking powder . 

Coffee 

Tea 

Cocoa 

Dried peas, beans and prunes 

Rice 

Macaroni 

Cereals -and breakfast foods 

Cornstarch, tapioca and jello 

Beef cubes 

Bread 

Cheese 

Salt 

Pepper 

Soda 

Cinnamon 

Sage 



Mustard 

Curry 

Paprika 

Fresh milk in jars 

Ham and bacon 

Salt pork 

Butter 

Eggs 

Lard 

Catsup 

Worcestershire sauce 

Horse radish 

Pickles and olives 

Olive oil 

Vinegar 

Preserved fruits and jellies 

Several boxes of soda, graham 
and oyster crackers 

Bottle of syrup 

Canned soups, beans, corn, toma- 
toes and peas 



131 



132 



PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 



Provisions (Continued) 

Canned roast beef, corned beef, Oranges, lemons, 
veal loaf and tongue, potted 
ham 

Canned sardines, tuna fish, sal- 
mon, crab-flakes and lobster 

Canned milk and cream 

Jars of sliced bacon, smoked 
beef and codfish 

Potatoes, onions, carrots and 
such other fresh vegetables 

Miscellaneous Supplies 

Ammonia 



other fruits 
Fresh water (in 

tanks) 
Liquors 
Soft beverages 
Alcohol 
Kerosene 



bananas and 



stone jugs or 



Blankets 

Oil skins 

Bathing suits 

Fishing tackle 

Fire arms 

Water-proof bag 

Camera and photographic 

plies 
Smoking material 
Sewing and mending kit 
Medicine kit 

Tooth-brushes and powder 
Graphaphone and records 
Playing cards 
Writing paper 
Cook book 
Pocket flash-light 
Ball of twine 
Candles 
Soap 
Scouring and soap powders 



Eight dinner plates 

Eight lunch plates 

Eight soup plates 

Eight bread and butter plates 

Eight cups and saucers 

Two platters 

Four open bowls, various sizes 

Two covered dishes 

One cream pitcher 

One sugar bowl 



Brass polish 

Dish cloths, towels and mop 
Face and bath towels 
Wash-cloths 

Table-cloths or oil-cloth 
sup- Napkins 
Table 
Chairs 
Table silver 
Dust pan 
Clothes brush 
Hatchet 
Supply of assorted nails and 

screws 
Hydrometer for storage battery 
Supply of extra electric light 

bulbs 
Caulking iron 
Marline spike 
Palm 

China and Glassware 

Several small flat dishes 

Large pitcher 

Twelve water glasses 

Twelve high-ball glasses 

Twelve wine glasses 

Three decanters 

One thermos carafe 

Set of salt and pepper shakers 

Syrup jar 



BOAT EQUIPMENT 



133 



Galley Utensils 



Stove and fuel 
Fireless cooker 
Broiler or toaster 
Can opener 
Coffee pot 
Tea pot 
Coffee strainer 
Two cooking spoons 
Cooking fork 
Cooking knife 
Potato knife 
Bread knife 
Carving set 
Ice pick 
Small dish pan 
Small hand basin 
Pancake turner 
Egg beater 
Lemon squeezer 



Good sized tea-kettle 

Two galvanized water pails 

One large and one small pre- 
serving kettle 

One large and one small stew- 
ing or sauce pan 

Two large and one small skillet 
or frying pan 

One double boiler 

Pancake griddle 

Three baking or bread pans 

Six pie plates 

Bottle opener 

Cork-screw 

Sieve 

Potato masher 

Measuring cup 

Meat chopper 

Cocktail shaker 



Tools and Engine Accesories 



Ten-inch mill file 

Eight-inch half round file 

Rat-tail file 

File handle 

Cotter pin extractor 

Cold chisel, %-inch 

Cape chisel 

Round-nose chisel 

Small hand vise 

Pair gas pliers 

Half-dozen spark plugs, each in 

separate) container — generally a 

round, screw top box 
Vibrator complete for coil in 

separate container 
Spare union, R. & L., for gas 

pipe line 
Large solid metal screwdriver 
Small screwdriver 
Six-inch combination pliers (with 

cutting edge) 



S wrenches % to % opening 

(three in all) 
Small monkey wrench 
Small Stilson wrench 
Socket wrench to fit spark plugs 
Eight-oz. machinist's hammer 
Eight-inch Stilson wrench 
Eight-inch monkey wrench 
Six-inch Stilson pipe wrench 
Fourteen-inch Stilson pipe wrench 
Pair 10-inch gas pliers 
One-inch patent combination 

pliers 
Ten-inch flat file 
Seven-inch three-corner-file 
Two screwdrivers, one 6-inch and 

one 10-inch or 12-inch 
Nail hammer, and few assorted 

nails 
Six-inch monkey wrench 



134 



PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 



Tools and Engine Ac 

Cold chisel, ^-ineh wide and 
about 6 inches long 

Twelve-inch monkey wrench 

Spool of fine copper wire 

Three to four feet of spring 
brass wire, about No. 12 gauge 

Piece of emery cloth 

Piece wire-inserted packing, big 
enough for cylinder head 

Ball candle wicking 

Small can Smooth-on for cracked 
water jackets 

Small tin shellac, for gas pipe 
line 

One can each of assorted cotter 
pins, assorted hex nuts, as- 
sorted washers. (These are 
standard goods and may be 
had at any supply house) 

One valve complete (in separate 
container) 

Two spare valve springs 

Emery paste for grinding in 
valves 



cessories (Continued) 

Hack saw and twelve blades 
Solder, copper and bundle of flux 
solder (solder with resin core) 
No. 2 roll friction tape 
Revolution counter 
Oil gun 
White lead 
Graphite 
Volt ammeter 
Spare pipe fittings 
Extra batteries 
Extra parts 
Gasoline 
Hard grease 
Lubricating oil 
Rubber hose 
Spark plugs 
Tool kit 
Waste 

Asbestos packing 
Insulated wire 
Tint measure 
Funnel 
Tire tape 



Navy Department's Suggestion for Medical Kit 

Antiseptic tablets (bichloride mercury) 1 bottle 

Bandages 6 

Beef, extract 1 bottle 

Calomel, tablets 1 bottle 

Cathartic tablets 1 bottle 

Chlorodyne tablets 1 bottle 

< iaiiz-e 2 yards 

Lead and opium tablets .1 bottle 

Mustard plasters 1 box 

Packages, first-aid 6 

Plaster, rubber 1 roll 

Quinine pills (3-grain) 1 bottle 

Soda, bicarbonate 1 can 

Tourniquets, rubber, instant 4 

Vaseline, carbolized 1 jar 

Whisky ■ 1 bottle 

Directions for giving medicines. 



CHAPTER XX 

Suggestions for Meals 

Breakfasts 

1 2 

Stewed fruit Bacon and eggs 

Cereal with butter and Fried potatoes 

sugar Coffee 
Corn fritters Coffee 



( 



3 4 

Cereal fried with bacon Scrambled eggs 

Lazy biscuits Coffee Canned corn and bacon 

Eggs Corn bread Coffee 

5 

Hominy grits browned with bacon 

Stewed Fruit Coffee 

Dinners 

1 2 

Beef pilau Salmon chowder 

Crackers Hot pilot bread 

Blackberry dumplings Stewed loganberries 

Coffee Coffee 

Bean puree 

Spinach with eggs 

Coffee Crackers 

Candy 

A COMPANY DINNER 

Mock turtle soup 

CoM fish with mayonnaise Lazy biscuits 

Okra sliced with tomatoes 

Deep blueberry pie 

Coffee 

Suppers 
1 2 

Baked beans with Corn soup 

tomato sauce Biscuits Tea 

Crackers Tea Fresh fruit 

Apricots 

135 



136 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 

3 

Lamb stew with peas 
Crackers Tea 

4 5 

Hulled corn and fresh Mock turtle and tomato 
milk soup 

Ginger cookies Pilot bread 

Tea Tea 

6 

Fish hash of salt cod and smoked salmon 
with potatoes 
Prunes Tea 

Recipes 

Following are the recipes of a few dishes which the most 
masculine amateur cook can successfully prepare: 

Lamb and Peas 
One can lamb. 
One can peas. 
Two boiled, potatoes. 
One onion. 
Stock. 
Disc lamb and potatoes and cook all together with enough 
stock or water to moisten thoroughly. Season and serve. 

Beef Pilau 

One can beef. 
One can tomatoes. 
One tablespoon butter. 
One onion. 
One-half cup rice. 

Brown onion lightly in butter; add the beef, sliced; season 
with salt and pepper. Cook the washed rice for five minutes, 
then add to meat with the tomato and one cup of water. 
Simmer until rice is tender. 

Fricasseed Beef 
One can beef. 

One can soup stock or a bouillon cube in water. 
Brown an onion minced in butter, add the souo stock, 
season highly and thicken with flour and butter. Cook the 
meat slices in this until hot and well seasoned. 



CHAPTER XXI 

Navy Signaling 

(From Navy Deck and Boat Book) 

THE flags and pennants used in transmitting the United 
States Navy Flag Code are as follows : 
Alphabet Fags — Negative flag (alphabet flag K). Pre- 
paratory flag (alphabet flag L). Annulling flag (alphabet flag 
N). Interrogatory flag (alphabet flag O). Affirmative flag 
(alphabet flag P). The following special flags are used: Num- 
eral flag, Repeaters, Danger and designating flag, Answering 
and divisional point pennant, Cornet, Call flags, Ship call pen- 
nants, Indicators. 

The alphabet flags are the same as those of the International 
Code. The letters E and T are not used singly because of 
their display by the Ardois system as night speed indicators, 
and because with the whistle they indicate a change of course. 
The letter I is used singly as the dispatch and breakdown flag. 

To prevent confusion and mistakes due to the similarity in the 
sounds of different letters when calling out flags or recording 
signals, the words given in the following table are used as the 
names of the letters on board of all vessels and at all times : 

A. Able N Nan 

B Boy O Oboe 

C Cast P Pup 

D Dog Q Quack 

E Easy R Rush 

• F Fox S Sail 

G George T Tare 

H Have U Unit 

I Item V Vice 

J Jig W Watch 

K Kink X X Ray 

L Love Y Yoke 

M Mike Z Zed 

Negative Flag K 

The negative flag (alphabet flag K) when hoisted in answer 
to a signal means "Not granted" or "No." The call of the boat 
t:o which it is addressed as an answer shall be displayed over it 
in order to avoid any chance of a misunderstanding. Hoisted 
over a signal it puts the message in a negative sense. 

137 



138 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 

Preparatory Flag L 

The preparatory flag (alphabet flag L) hoisted over a signal 
means "Prepare to execute the signal now shown as soon as the 
signal of execution is made. 

The signal of execution is the starting from its point of hoist 
the same signal (without the preparatory flag) or some other 
signal relating to the same movement or maneuver. Thus, if the 
signals were made to prepare to moor shio, the signal of exe- 
cution might be the hauling down later of a signal to "anchor 
in succession in inverted order." 

Annulling Flag N 

The annulling flag (alphabet flag N) annuls all signals at 
that moment displayed on the same mast. In this case only it 
is to be answered by hauling down all answering pennants which 
may have been hoisted in reply to the signal or signals. In 
case ships have the signal or signals- hoisted they shall also 
display the annulling flag and haul all down with their hauling 
down on the flagship. Hoisted alone, it annuls the last signal 
made or the last hoist. 

Any signal previously made may be annulled by hoisting the 
signal again with the annulling flag either over it or hoisted at 
the same time. 

Interrogatory Flag O 

The interrogatory flag (alphabet flag O) when hoisted over 
a signal changes its meaning to the interrogatory form. 

The single display of the interrogatory in answer to a signal 
means that the signal cannot be read or is not understood. 

The interrogatory hoisted alone by a flagship means "You 
are repeating the signal wrong," or "What movement are you 
making?" according to the circumstances which will be evident. 

Affirmative Flag P 

The affirmative flag (alphabet P) when hoisted in answer 
to a signal, means assent, consent, permission granted, or "Yes." 
The call of the boat to which it is addressed as an answer shall 
be displayed over it in order to avoid any chance of a mis- 
understanding. 

Hoisted over a signal, it means that the specific work or 
service called for by that signal has been completed or the duty 
has been performed. For example, the signal "Moor," with 
the affirmative over it, means "I have moored." 

It is hoisted alone when getting under way with other vessels 
in formation; when ready to steam ahead after "Man over- 



NAVY SIGNALING 130 

board" or* other contingency involving stopping; in mooring 
ship; and in other cases to indicate that some duty called for 
in a previous signal has been completed. 

Numeral Flag 

The numeral flag hoisted over certain alphabet flags indicates 
that those flags are to be interpreted as numerals. The flags 
whose meanings are thus changed are as follows : 

Q i V .6 

R 2 W 7 

S 3 X... 8 

T .....4 Y 9 

U 5 Z 

Repeaters 

The repeaters serve to reproduce, in numeral and vocabulary 
signals only, the alphabet flags hoisted above them. The first 
repeater reproduces the first alphabet flag, the second repeater 
the second, and the third the third. 
Danger and Designating Flag 

The danger and designating and Navy-Register-Use flag 
hoisted alone indicates danger ahead. A compass signal under 
it indicates the bearing of the danger from the boat making 
the signal. 

Used as a designating flag it designates a particular boat, 
place, person, or thing, when hoisted over or at the same time 
and if possible, on the same mast as the signal representing the 
object referred to. For a boat, the signal will be her call or 
her International Signal letters ; for a place or thing, the signal 
in the vocabulary ; for an officer on the active list, his signal 
number in the Navy Register; for an officer on the retired 
list, or an enlisted man or other person, the signals spelling out 
his name. In making an officer's number the January Navy 
Register of each year shall be used on and after July 1 of that 
year and until and including June 30 of the following year. 

Answering Pennant 

The answering pennant is hoisted where it can be best 
seen — at the truck, gaff, or yardarm — in answering, and kept 
there until the signal is hauled down. At sea, if displayed at 
the yardarm it shall be at the side not occupied by the speed 
cone unless that leads to concealment by smoke. In port it 
shall be displayed at the starboard yardarm. 

In order that there shall be no uncertainty as to the signal 
that is answered by a' boat, the latter shall display the answering 



140 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 

pennant under the call of the boat making- the signal; except 
that in answering a signal from the senior flagship the latter's 
call shall not be displayed. 

The answering pennant is used as a divisional point to repre- 
sent the divisions of mixed quantities referred to by a signal 
made at the same time or just previously. 

Cornet 

The cornet hoisted at the fore, or at the highest gaff of signal 
yard if the foremast head cannot be used for its display, is a 
peremptory order for all officers and others absent from the 
boat to repair on board at once. A gun fired denotes urgency. 

The cornet hoisted half yardarm high is a call for the whole 
force to receive a semaphore or wigwag message. 

Union Jack 

The Union Jack hoisted at the fore is a signal for a pilot. 
Hoisted at a yardarm it indicates that a general court-martial 
or court of inquiry is in session on board. In port a gun shall 
be fired when it is hoisted upon the meeting of the court. 

Powder Flag 

The powder flag (alphabet flag B) shall be displayed at the 
fore on all vessels while taking on board or discharging ex- 
plosives or loaded projectiles, or fuel oil or gasoline in large 
quantities, and in the bows of all boats and lighters transporting 
the same. It is also to be displayed by a ship engaged in target 
practice with either guns or torpedoes, while the firing is in 
actual progress. It shall be hauled down halfway when off the 
firing line if the practice is to continue, and hauled down at 
"Cease firing" or "Secure." It may also be used when standard- 
izing propellers, to indicate when the boat is on the course and 
observations are in progress. 

Dispatch and Breakdown Flag 

The dispatch and breakdown flag (alphabet flag I) shall be 
worn at the main in all dispatch vessels to indicate the nature 
of their service. No vessel shall hoist the dispatch flag without 
proper authority, or display it as such until actually under way 
and out of formation; but when it is hoisted she shall not be 
interfered with by an officer junior to the one bv whom she 
is sent on such service, except when the public interests im- 
peratively demand such action, of the necessity for which the 
senior officer present must be the responsible judge. A vessel 
engaged in carrying dispatches or orders through a fleet should 
hoist below the dispatch flag the call of the boat to which she 



NAVY SIGNALING 111 

is next bound; or she may display in inverse order the calls of 
all the boats to be communicated with, that of the boat to be 
next communicated with being the last one in the hoist, and as 
soon as any boat has been communicated with her call shall be 
detached from the hoist. 

In formation under way this flag shall be kept rounded up "in 
stops" at the fore ready to break in case of accident to machinery 
or steering gear. When a guide flag is displayed at the foremast 
head the breakdown flag shall be hoisted "in stops" below the 
guide flag ready to break below it. In case of accident which 
is likely to necessitate slowing down or leaving the formation, 
it shall be instantly broken as an emergency signal, and implies 
"breakdown" or "not under control," and other boats must 
keep clear until the boat displaying the breakdown flag shall 
have gotten well clear of the formation. The breakdown flag 
does not relieve a boat from responsibility in cases of collision, 
even though she may have sheered out of formation. It shall 
be kept flying during daylight until repairs are completed and 
the ship is headed for the formation to resume her position, or 
until she is beyond signal distance. 

In case of man overboard, a ship in formation shall break 
this flag and at once lower it part way (but not below the level 
of the smokestacks) as a signal for "man overboard." 

Guard and Guide Flag 

The guard and guide flag when used at anchor is a guard flag, 
and indicates that the boat upon which it is hoisted is charged 
with the guard duty of the division, squadron, or force then 
at anchor within signal distance. It shall be hoisted at the fore 
between sunrise and sunset. From sunset until sunrise a red 
light shall be displayed at the fore truck, except under such 
conditions as may cause it to be. confused with navigation lights. 
The guard flag shall not be hoisted nor the red light shown, by a 
flagship or vessel of the senior officer present to indicate that 
she has the guard duty. A boat may be directed to take the 
guard duty by hoisting the guard flag under the boat's call; 
this is answered by hoisting the guard flag. A boat is re- 
lieved from guard duty by hoisting the guard flag: over the 
boat's call; this is answered by hauling down the guard flag. To 
call a guard boat alongside, the flagship may hoist the guard flag 
under the boat's call or under the call of the division to which the 
boat belongs ; or at night may display a red light after the call, 
as above. This is answered by dipping the guard flag or 
pulsating the red light. Boats on guard duty shall display a 
small guard flag from a staff in their bows during daylight. 



142 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 

When a ship is under way and in formation the display of this 
flag at the fore denotes that she is the guide in the formation. 
The guide flag at the dip (lowered part way) indicates that the 
guide boat is temporarily out of position. The division guide 
pennant (position pennant) shall be displayed under the same 
rules for rear divisions or squadrons. A boat may be directed 
to take the guide by hoisting the guide flag under the boat's 
call, or to cease being the guide by hoisting it oyer the boat's 
call. This is answered by hoisting or hauling down the guide 
flag or pennant as called for. 

Miscellaneous Flags 

The convoy and position and division guide pennant shall be 
worn at the fore of all ships on escort duty to indicate the 
nature of their service. No- vessel shall hoist the convoy 
pennant without proper authority; but when it is hoisted she 
shall not be interfered with by an officer junior to the one by 
whom she was sent on such service, except when the public 
interests imperatively demand such action, of the necessity for 
which the senior officer present must be the responsible judge. 

It is also a division (or squadron) guide pennant, and in com- 
pound formations is worn by the guides of divisions (or 
squadrons) other than the fleet guide. 

A boat in formation not on escort duty hoists this pennant 
to indicate that she has attained an assigned position ; Jout it 
shall not be used in tactical evolutions except as prescribed 
under fleet tactics. When a boat in formation has been in 
position and loses it, she shall hoist the position pennant at 
half-mast as an indication of the fact, and keep it so until she 
regains her position, when she shall run it all the way up and 
immediately haul it down. Under battle conditions it shall not 
be used for this purpose. 

The position pennant displayed under a call by the senior 
officer, means to the boat signaled: "You are out of position," 
or "You are out of order." 

The full-speed and meal and flag-officer-leaving pennant is 
kept hoisted as a single display at the port yardarm during the 
period when the crew is at meals on board vessels at anchor, 
whether or not the colors are hoisted. This pennant shall be 
shown for this purpose without reference to the flagship. Under 
way in formation it shall be used as a full-speed pennant on 
the same side as the speed cone. When a flag officer is about 
to leave his ftaeshin officially during the day. this pennant shall 
be displaved directly under the flag and hauled down when he 
shoves off. 



NAVY SIGNALING 143 

The general- and boat-recall flag is a peremptory order for all 
boats absent from that ship on detathed duty, or otherwise, to 
return with all speed to their ship. A numeral displayed bejow 
the general recall is an order that all boats except the one in- 
dicated shall return to the ship. The general-recall flag under 
a numeral indicates the recall of the ship's boat having that 
numeral as a call number. Commanding officers of all ships 
shall assign numbers to all boats for this and for boat exercise 
purposes. A recall shall be kept hoisted until the boat is made 
out as returning in obedience to the signal. If necessary, but only 
in case of emergency, the ship's call letter may be sounded on 
the steam whistle or a gun fired to attract the attention of the 
boat. When a boat recall is hoisted with the annulling flag 
over it, it indicates that the boat so designated shall not return 
to the boat at the time previously prescribed, but shall wait for 
the further display of her recall. 

At night a boat may be recalled by the display of I, fol- 
lowed by the number of the boat, and by the boat's call if there 
can be any uncertainty as to which ship she is signaling; or 
special night recalls may be assigned for particular occasions, 
observing due care that the recall used shall not be such as to 
render it possible to be mistaken by other ships as a signal to 
them. 

The quarantine flag (alphabet flag Q) is hoisted at the 
foremast head or most conspicuous hoist on all infected ships 
or ships iu quarantine. It shall be kept flying day and night 
and be carried in the bow of all boats belonging to the ship 
having this flag hoisted. It should be hoisted by incoming ships 
as a signal to the health officer of the port that pratique is 
desired. 

The battle efficiency pennant shall be worn at the fore when 
at anchor on such vessels as may have been officially declared 
entitled to fly it for excellence in battle efficiency. 

The Red Cross flag is, by international agreement, to be worn 
at the fore on all hospital vessels. It shall also be displayed 
over the field hospital of any naval force on shore and on 
hospital boats of landing parties. 

The submarine warning flag is hoisted on the tender or 
parent ship of submarines or on launches accompanying them, 
to indicate that submarines are operating submerged in that 
vicinity. 

The church pennant shall be hoisted at the same place of hoist 
and over the ensign during the performance of divine service 
on board vessels of the Navy. 



144 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 

T'ie battalion flags for infantry and artillery are provided 
for naval landing forces. * 

The Naval Militia distinguishing flag shall be hoisted at the 
mast-head (fore when there is more than one mast) at 11 
times on all vessels loaned by the Navy Department to a State 
for the use of the Naval Militia or Naval Reserve, and on all 
vessels "in commission in reserve" and assigned to the States 
for the instruction of the Naval Militia or Naval Reserve, when 
such vessels are actually under the command of a Naval Militia 
or Naval Reserve officer. 

The Naval Militia commission pennant and commodore's pen- 
nant shall be worn by the Naval Militia vessels in the same way 
that is prescribed for the similar pennants on vessels of the 
Navy. 

To Signal the Engineer 

When engine is stopped, 1 bell for Ahead Slow. 
When running ahead slow, jingle for Full Speed Ahead. 
When running full speed ahead, 1 bell for Slow Down. 
When running ahead slow, 1 bell for Stop. 
When stopped, 2 bells for Astern Slow. 
When running astern slow, jingle for Full Speed Astern. 
When running astern slow or at full speed, 1 bell for Stop. 
When running full speed ahead, . 4 bells for Full Speed 
Astern. 

When no jingle bell is provided, use the following signals: 

When stopped, 1 bell for Ahead. 
When running ahead, 1 bell for Stop. 
When stopped, 2 bells for Astern. 
When running astern, 1 bell for Stop. 
When running ahead, 4 bells for Astern. 

TTHE END1 



